A critical finding of this synthesis has been that studies of opioid-related outcomes associated with PDMP implementation typically point to a shared logic for how PDMPs are expected to function, namely that: implementation of PDMPs will increase reporting and monitoring of controlled prescriptions, resulting in reduced opioid prescribing by providers, reduced opportunities for opioid diversion and misuse, and lower frequency of negative consequences such as opioid abuse and mortality [18]. Despite this shared logic, however, there is a marked lack of discussion in the literature to date regarding the scope of PDMP-related outcomes that should be examined and assessed in order to evaluate whether, and under what conditions, their implementation is having the intended impact.
In conducting this review, therefore, we found it useful to identify four domains of opioid-related outcomes frequently examined in original studies evaluating PDMP impacts: opioid prescribing; opioid diversion and supply; opioid misuse; and opioid-related morbidity and mortality. While these domains are subject to debate and may at times overlap, we believe they provide a useful heuristic for identifying areas of relative strength and weakness in the existing evidence for the impact of PDMPs.
While the literature evaluating PDMPs remains relatively nascent, a complex picture is emerging. Studies examining the association between PDMP implementation and opioid-related outcomes do not indicate a consistent pattern of discernible change. Such variation in results is likely due in part to variation in study-related factors, including study design and methods, use of inconsistent measures of impact, and examination of PDMP impacts in a single state vs. across multiple states. Additionally, the characteristics of PDMPs themselves vary considerably across states in both legislated components and strategies for implementation. Use of PDMPs by providers prior to writing a prescription for opioids may be mandatory or optional, and states vary in the responsibility they place upon providers for any negative outcomes associated with misuse or abuse by their patients [5]. PDMPs also vary in the frequency with which data is reported to them by participating pharmacies, the ease of accessing necessary information, the types of providers allowed to register, the information available, the amount of training providers receive in use of PDMPs, and by which state agencies they are administered [5]. As a result, the timeliness and accuracy of PDMP data varies considerably across states, as does the frequency and consistency of use by providers. It was unsurprising to find two studies examining the impact of PDMP implementation on opioid diversion, given the important role played by the Bureau of Justice Assistance in supporting PDMP implementation [8]. However, reviewing the evidence makes it clear that more nuanced investigation of the impact of specific characteristics of PDMP legislation and implementation will be necessary to firmly establish the policy features and strategies associated with PDMPs that are successful in reducing negative outcomes as intended.
Even within the limitations of the current evidence, however, it has already become clear that PDMPs may also be associated with impacts beyond those generally hypothesized, both potential benefits and harms. Studies have reported that many clinicians find PDMPs useful as a tool for communication and interaction with patients [19, 20]. With patient prescription history at their disposal, providers can not only verify the patient’s current prescriptions to avoid doctor shopping or drug abuse, but can also avoid potentially dangerous non-controlled drug interactions. As noted above, an important concern has been raised regarding the “chilling effect” that PDMPs and other opioid control measures may have on providers’ opioid prescribing, leaving patients potentially undertreated for pain or seeking elsewhere for licit or illicit means to manage their pain [11]. What happens when providers re-evaluate their opioid prescribing has proven to be a critical question, although relatively few studies have yet provided data to answer it. Of the studies examined in this review, Rasubula et al. [21] found that dentists reducing their prescriptions of opioid analgesics in a dental urgent care center correspondingly increased their use of non-opioid analgesics, such as acetaminophen, and in this case drew closer to recommended practice guidelines for post-operative management of oral pain. Paulozzi et al. [3]’s findings of increased prescribing of hydrocodone, then a Schedule III drug, in PDMP states may also indicate that some providers have responded to PDMPs and associated shifts in prescribing norms by increasing prescriptions of analgesics from lower schedules. More troublingly, there is also evidence that patients, when faced with reduced ability to access licit opioids, may turn to illicit heroin, morphine, or fentanyl as alternatives, with studies indicating an increase in related mortality in some PDMP states [17, 22, 23].
There are several limitations to this review. Because the PDMP literature remains small and study outcomes and design vary, we were unable to conduct a traditional systematic review or meta-analysis, thus limiting our ability to conduct statistical analysis of the cumulative evidence. Because we described state-administered PDMP programs exclusively, findings may not extend to other prescription monitoring approaches in the U.S. and elsewhere. Nonetheless, this scoping review may inform other monitoring efforts, particularly by underscoring the importance of having clearly defined target outcomes (e.g., reduction in opioid-related morbidity and mortality) and a plan for evaluation. Conclusive evidence regarding impact cannot be determined from observational/cross sectional designs, and data to support causal relationships between PDMP implementation and opioid-related outcomes remain limited as a result. Drawing upon PubMed as the core search database may have resulted in identifying more literature emphasizing healthcare policy rather than law enforcement impacts of PDMPs. In addition, this review was limited to published data; additional analyses may be available in unpublished reports from state or other sources, and should be considered for inclusion in future systematic reviews.