Table 2 Studies of Prescription Drug Monitoring Program (PDMP) Impact by Domain of Opioid-Related Outcome Measure

 Paulozzi, 2011^a [3]

PDMP and non-PDMP states; 1995–2005

Mean MME rates

Crude mean MME^b rates and their standard errors for PDMP and non-PDMP states were calculated by year and across 1999–2005 timespan.

According to results of a regression analysis, the presence of a PDMP was not a significant predictor of MME rates.

No

 Brady, 2014 [2]

PDMP and non-PDMP states; 1999–2008

Opioids dispensed per quarter for each state from 1999 to 2008

Multivariable linear regression model with generalized estimating equations assessed the effect of state PDMPs on per-capita dispensing of MMEs.

Overall, implementation of state PDMPs up to 2008 did not show significant impact on per-capita opioids dispensed. Examined state-by-state, authors found PDMP implementation associated with per capita MME decline in 9 states, increase in 8 states, and no effect in 14 states.

No

 Rasubala, 2015 [21]

New York; 2012–2014

Frequency and volume of opioid prescriptions by dentists in a dental urgent care center

Cross-sectional survey of a dental urgent care center 3 months before and 6 months after implementation of a PDMP

Total prescribed opioids decreased 78% by dentists in a dental urgent care center after a mandatory PDMP was implemented.

Yes

 Ringwalt, 2015 [11]

North Carolina; 2009–2011

Number of filled prescriptions for opioids

Examined associations between total number of providers who used the PDMP, mean number of days providers queried the system, and filled opioid prescriptions.

Strong positive association between increasing use of PDMP and opioid analgesic prescriptions over time.

No

 Rutkow, 2015 [25]

Florida; 2010–2012

Opioid volume, per transaction, MME prescribed, MME per transaction, days’ supply per transaction, prescriptions dispensed.

Comparative interrupted time-series analysis to assess the effect of PDMP and ‘pill mill law’ implementation on a closed cohort of prescribers, retail pharmacies, and patients.

Jointly the PDMP and ‘pill mill’ policies were associated with reductions in total opioid volume, mean MME per transaction, and total number of opioid prescriptions dispensed.

Yes

 Reisman, 2009^a [12]

PDMP and non-PDMP states; 1997–2003

State prescription opioid shipments (ARCOS)^b

Compared state prescription opioid shipments in 14 states with PDMPs (intervention group) and 36 states without PDMPs (control group).

States with PDMPs received fewer oxycodone shipments that non-PDMP states; opioid shipments in all states continued to rise.

Yes

 Surratt, 2014 [26]

Florida; 2009–2012

Quarterly prescription opioid diversion rates

Changes in prescription opioid diversion rates identified using quarterly law enforcement data after implementation of PDMP and ‘pill mill’ laws assessed using hierarchical linear models.

Significant decline in oxycodone diversion; nonsignificant (p = 0.08) decline in hydrocodone diversion; no decline in fentanyl, hydromorphone, or tramadol.

Yes

 Reifler, 2012^a [15]

PDMP and non-PDMP states; 2003–2009

Cases of intentional exposure to opioids (RADARS)^b

Repeated measures negative binomial regression was applied to quarterly case data to estimate opioid misuse trends. PMP presence was modeled as a time-varying covariate for each state.

Results suggest PDMPs are associated with a mitigation of increasing opioid misuse over time in both the general population as well as within the population seeking treatment at Opioid Treatment Programs.

Yes

 Reisman, 2009^a [12]

PDMP vs. non-PDMP states; 1997–2003

Inpatient prescription opioid treatment admissions per year

Inpatient admissions for prescription opioid abuse (TEDS)^b in 14 states with PDMPs (intervention group) and 36 states without PDMPs (control group).

PDMP states reported a smaller increase in opioid treatment admissions per year (p[=0.06). Patients receiving inpatient drug treatment in PDMP states were less likely to have been admitted for prescription opioids.

Yes

 Paulozzi, 2011^a [3]

PDMP and non-PDMP states; 1999–2005

Rates of drug overdose and opioid-related mortality by state

Regression analysis using mortality data by state and year, crude mean mortality and standard error for PDMP and non-PDMP states.

Mortality rates did not differ by a statistically significant margin between PDMP and non-PDMP states.

No

 Reifler, 2012^a [15]

PDMP and non-PDMP states; 2003–2009

Opioid treatment admissions

Repeated measures negative binomial regression applied to quarterly surveillance data from 2003 to mid-2009 to estimate opioid abuse trends. PDMP presence was modeled as a time-varying covariate for each state.

States with PDMPs appeared to experience smaller increases in drug abuse over time.

Yes

 Li, 2014 [16]

PDMP and non-PDMP states; 1999–2008

Drug overdose mortality data for state-quarters

Multivariate negative binomial regression modeling examined drug overdose mortality for states with and without PDMPs during 1999–2008.

PDMP states experienced higher drug overdose mortality overall; PDMP impact on mortality varied by state.

No

 Delcher, 2015 [17]

Florida; 2003–2012

Monthly counts of oxycodone-caused deaths

Time-series, quasi-experimental research design with ARIMA^b statistical models examined monthly counts of oxycodone-caused deaths using a binary variable (pre/post-implementation).

Implementation of Florida’s Prescription Drug Monitoring Program was associated with a significant decline in oxycodone-caused mortality

Yes

 Maughan, 2015 [27]

11 Multi-state metropolitan areas; 2004–2011

Rates of emergency department visits involving opioid analgesics

Using retrospective data (DAWN)^b, generalized estimating equations assessed PDMP implementation and opioid-related morbidity.

PDMP implementation was not associated with change in rates of ED visits involving opioid analgesics.

No