Curriculum and training needs of mid-level health workers in Africa: a situational review from Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa and Uganda

Phase 1: Qualitative enquiry

A range of purposively-selected key informant interviews were conducted in each country. (See interview guide in Additional file 1). The interview questions and process were jointly developed during research planning and standardised across the countries. Participants were drawn from various professional regulatory bodies, professional associations, training institutions, labour organizations and relevant government ministries – Health, Finance, Labour and Education. In Nigeria key legislators also took part, the Chairpersons of the Health Committees of the Senate and the House of Representatives and a representative of a non-governmental organization (NGO) working on health in rural areas. Focus group discussions were also conducted with some of the participants. In addition, policy documents on education and curriculum for training of MLWs in each of the countries were assessed and examined for relevance and adequacy in content.

The information reported here from the interviews and document review focuses on those aspects of the research related to MLW training. For three of the countries, responses were based on many years of experience of these workers in their countries, whereas in South Africa they were based on the planned introduction of clinical associates, training of whom had recently commenced at the time of the interviews. Our inquiry focused on: entry requirements for training, training sites, curriculum content, educational methods and who the trainers were; generic questions about problems and suggested solutions including educational issues. All interviews were conducted in English, recorded and transcribed to improve accuracy and to support detailed analysis. Emergent and recurrent themes from the interviews were discussed and agreed upon by the investigators. In each country, there was triangulation across key informant interviews and focus group discussions, as well as between these and the document review. At the close of the study consultative stakeholder meetings were conducted in each country to validate and provide feedback on the research findings. The initial results of the surveys and interviews were presented, the proposed interventions discussed with themes and comments recorded for documentation.

Phase 2: Quantitative enquiry

MLWs and district managers from urban and rural government district health facilities in Kenya, Nigeria and Uganda were requested to complete structured self-administered questionnaires. In South Africa, district managers were surveyed on their ideas about primary care nurses (who carry out similar functions as MLWs in other countries) since no clinical associates had yet graduated at the time of the study. Multistage stratified cluster sampling was used aiming for a sample size of 300 from each country. In Kenya we purposely selected one urban and one rural district from each province and then included all MLWs working in government health facilities in the selected districts. In Uganda 45 districts (out of a total of 77) were selected at random after stratifying by region, urban and rural districts, and better and worse functioning districts based on available health indicators and outcomes. All MLWs from the selected districts were included. In Nigeria we selected one state from each of the two health zones in both the North and South regions of the country. We selected every third Local Government Area (LGA) from the sampling frame in each of the selected states for a total of 240 LGAs. Every third person on the list of CHOs and CHEWs in the selected LGAs was included in the survey. The district health managers from each of the 52 districts in South Africa and the 72 districts in Kenya (using the district boundaries prior to 2002) were selected. In Uganda all district managers in the selected study districts were included. In Nigeria the primary health care coordinator, the LGA equivalent of the district manager, was included from each of the 240 selected LGAs.

The self-administered questionnaire was developed jointly by researchers from the four countries and piloted in each country. The final tool included 34 and 35 questions for district managers and MLWs respectively. Of relevance to this paper were questions on demographic characteristics; the adequacy of MLW training (yes or no); suggestions about how MLW training could be improved (three open-ended responses); and proposals to improve MLW performance (ranking the top 5 from a list of 15 identified in the literature). Data from the questionnaires was entered in Epi-Info (Epi Info™ 7. CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA, 2011) and analysed using Stata v11 (Stata Statistical Software: Release 11. StataCorp, College Station, TX, 2009). Open-ended responses were listed and then coded jointly by 4 researchers.

Ethical approval was obtained in each country by the lead institution in that country. (Complete information is provided at the end of the article.)

Qualitative data

Table 1 displays the details of scope of practice, pre-entry requirements, duration of pre-service training, place of training and educational content, in the four countries. Their scope of practice was similar: MLWs provide general diagnoses and treatment in primary care clinics, health centres, and outpatient departments of district and mission hospitals. Those with specialist training may provide care in specific disciplines such as surgery, anaesthesia, psychiatry, HIV services and so on. There were commonalities across these countries: the MLW training programs recruited secondary school graduates; grade requirements tended to be lower than for medical degrees and more equivalent to entry for nursing education; the basic pre-service training took three years, with the option of further specialist training in Kenya and Uganda, or upgrading to a Higher Diploma in Nigeria. Training was mainly conducted through specific public sector training institutions established by Ministries of Health for MLWs.

MLWs were trained in basic diagnosis and medical treatment. In Uganda, a curriculum review in 1997 reoriented training towards preventive health and health promotion in addition to curative care. However, there were gaps identified in theoretical input on new developments such as management of HIV and AIDS, palliative care, and new initiatives in malaria and tuberculosis. In addition, there was limited practical exposure alongside theoretical teaching, especially in terms of new approaches to common conditions. In Nigeria, the diplomas were reviewed in 2006, with curricula adapted to include communications, ethics, health economics, information systems, human resources, and research methods. Kenya reviewed the CO curriculum in 2007, producing a common set of competencies and learning outcomes to be used across all CO training institutions, aiming to cover the range of medical problems encountered by COs. Despite this ambition, respondents felt the training only prepared the COs for 50% of the conditions and issues dealt with in their actual workload. Areas felt to be inadequately covered include basic sciences, research methodology, community health, HIV and AIDS, psychology, sociology and ethics. The older programs had a bigger focus on health promotion and disease prevention, and on management of common conditions, which was also not necessarily what COs were faced with in their workplaces. The three South African universities provided outcomes-based training according to a common curriculum framework with core competencies of clinical reasoning, investigative and therapeutic procedures appropriate for district hospitals, emergency care, clinical recordkeeping, ethics and professionalism, communication skills and counselling. The curriculum framework incorporates a set of common conditions presenting at district hospitals with a list of skills and procedures usually performed in district hospitals that they have to be competent in.

Training methods in the older programs relied on didactic teaching. More modern teaching and assessment methods such as adult and self-directed learning, problem-based learning, portfolios and Objective Structured Clinical Examinations (OSCEs) were uncommon. Teaching in the presence of patients on patient-based problems and practical demonstrations of history-taking, clinical examinations and interventions such as immunizations or wound-suturing were reported to be essential parts of these curricula. A recurring comment was that the educational content of training sessions were not aligned with the disease burden of the populations served and the kinds of conditions commonly presenting at rural health facilities. The training did not include methods of coping with day-to-day problems such as staff shortages, lack of equipment and medications. Respondents also indicated, particularly in Uganda, that tutors were expected to teach with minimal resources due to a paucity of teaching aids and reference materials. Since the clinical associates program in South Africa was newly developed it benefitted considerably from the experience of earlier programs in Africa. It was therefore able to draw on current educational thinking, incorporating intensive patient-based practical training, small group teaching, problem-based learning and self-directed learning.

Quantitative data

Alignment of training institutions with health systems

The greater alignment between educational institutions and health systems should extend to MLW training which mainly takes place outside of medical schools in training institutions created by Ministries of Health and Education for this purpose. South Africa is the exception. Participants in our study called for curriculum review and formal accreditation of MLW training, which should be standard processes in all HPE institutions [18], and which could be addressed through more formal incorporation of such training into university or other higher education institutional structures. Medical schools across Africa are adopting innovative, problem-solving, student- centred and community-based approaches to medical education [20, 21], which are equally appropriate for MLW pre-service and in-service training. Developing a regional or continental network of training programs with cross-country comparisons and peer review could provide additional support for this. The move in some countries from diploma qualifications to university degrees for MLWs will help them to link in much more with developments in medical schools, and thus to innovative approaches for HPE overall. This upgrading should be informed by deficits faced by MLWs trained at diploma level so that graduates are able to offer better care. More recently established MLW training programs have opportunities to innovate in the design of their teaching methods and curricula, while older programs can reflect on the achievements of the past, and to reorient their approaches towards achieving their stated goals and objectives.

Compared with medical training, MLW training programs accept individuals with lower levels of schooling, shorter training periods, with less reliance on hospitals and advanced technology [3, 8]. The inclination to lengthen training to address some of the gaps should be resisted since the content and teaching methods are more critical than the length of course. Huicho et al. [22] showed no differences in quality of child health care between health workers with shorter or longer duration of training, although they did not examine the nature of the training and focused on very specific protocol-based tasks. Changing to competency-based education would allow for variable lengths of training, accommodating the skills and abilities of individual learners, and ensuring that trainees are assessed for competency before becoming independent practitioners [23].

Curriculum review

Participants were concerned about the limited focus of their training curricula. Reviews of the content of curricula and training programs have not occurred recently in line with current thinking on health professions’ education, and in-depth analysis of these are clearly needed. The gaps in clinical skills, particularly related to the major causes of disease burden in Africa (maternal and child mortality, infectious diseases, trauma and violence) and newer challenges (HIV/AIDS and emerging chronic diseases), are significant and need to be addressed. Where reviews and changes in curricula have taken place, these have often led to the addition of theoretical content such as in health economics, ethics and research methods, rather than inclusion of problem-solving and case-study methods that prepare MLWs to deal with problems faced at health facilities. The solutions proposed by participants in this study include making the training more fit-for-purpose, with better regulation of training and monitoring progression against established standards. Participants requested that the content of programs be grounded in the disease burden of the populations served and should reflect the range and complexity of conditions they have to deal with at district level facilities. Country-specific morbidity profiles and health care needs should be the basis for addressing deficiencies in knowledge and skills. Teaching of research methods, economics and ethics could flow from the problems arising at facility level, rather than from theory. Benefits for whole health care teams would come from implementing care delivery models that best serve the local population health needs, using interventions known to be cost-effective, and that are taught by those with the appropriate skills and experience of those needs and models [6].

Scope of practice

Limiting the scope of what MLWs are trained to carry out, making them focus on preventive health and minor conditions, while at the same time not providing them with the skills to respond to emergencies, has implications for how useful they can be and to their own sense of efficacy, especially where referral systems are limited. Dovlo points out that limiting MLW training to minor procedures may lead to them becoming a “transit referral point”, and thus a potential bottleneck in emergency care [4]. General surgery at district hospitals is highly cost-effective relative to other interventions in sub-Saharan Africa and in comparison to referral hospitals because of the relatively low input costs related to infrastructure and the high level of the avertable disease and disability burden [24, 25]. Where MLWs work under supervision of district doctors, giving them surgical skills to manage emergency situations and surgical procedures, provides good value for money [26]. Requests for more specialist training and career progression were raised in our study, though some MLWs did have opportunities for further training in a number of disciplines such as otorhinolaryngology, ophthalmology and anaesthetics. In the South African model, competency in emergency medicine and trauma procedures are required for ClinAs.

Sustaining performance and CPD

Managers’ perceptions that MLW performance could improve and be sustained have highlighted the importance of follow-up training and CPD [4], concerns also expressed by MLW participants in this study. Adult learning methods that are life-long, experiential, reflective and linked to career progression, are more effective than didactic teaching when used for CPD. There is now stronger evidence emerging of the importance of training in the location of future work. Rural placements that are well-structured and supervised are better at equipping health professionals to work in the same environments [27]. Specialist outreach also facilitates supervision and mentorship of MLWs training in rural areas [7]. Supportive supervision focused on clinical mentorship rather than mainly on administration at both pre-service and in-service training is critical, yet a review of primary care supervision in developing countries found that clinical supervision (checking diagnostic and/or therapeutic skills) was uncommon [28]. Educators also need updating through CPD since many are out-of-touch with learning techniques and skills required for clinical curative primary care [5]. Many Health Professional Councils or Boards in African countries now have a requirement to demonstrate annual CPD credits for continued registration, which should apply to MLWs as well.

Investments required

Rather than being treated as a stop-gap in primary and secondary health services, MLWs should be recognised for the essential frontline health workers they are. Their training and curricula require improvement to enable them to carry out the functions that they do with greater effectiveness and with regard to better quality care and enhanced outcomes. National governments should take a lead to ensure there is an enabling regulatory and accreditation framework for training, and to resource, guide and support educational institutions to upgrade training (quantity, quality and relevance), at both pre-service and in-service levels [16]. Targeted investments in infrastructure, faculty and training are necessary, and early collaboration with appropriate, socially accountable medical and nursing faculties could provide the necessary support for new programs.

Development and provision of appropriate trainers is critical in this. The slow growth of the health workforce lags behind population growth and increased health need in Africa [29], with the shortage of senior clinical educators – doctors and nurses – undermining training of all health staff as well as provision of services. Recent developments in many African countries of placing Family Physicians and Family Medicine training at district hospitals could facilitate incorporation of MLWs as valued members of district health teams, allowing them to develop practical skills under supervision, at the same time freeing up doctors for other more complex work [29, 30].

The costs of training MLWs and supporting them in practice should be compared with equivalent costs for physicians, to ensure that interventions are cost-effective, at the same time as being relevant and enhancing quality of care. Such an approach is essential given the significant economic, political, sociocultural and other external forces influencing decision-making in the countries studied, as exemplars of Africa, while recognising that investment in education and job creation in the health sector will contribute to promoting economic growth [31].

The progressive upgrade of MLW training in Africa has led to increasing professionalization and subsequent establishment of degree programs and an international professional association. The creation of the African Network of Associate Clinicians (ANAC) is an important step forward in recognising MLWs as health professionals who are making a significant contribution to primary and secondary health care, rather than being just a stop-gap measure. ANAC could collaborate with the International Academy of Physician Associate Educators (IAPAE)² and through this synergy promote the global recognition of this cadre of health professionals.

Limitations

Our study provides useful insights on the appropriateness and relevance of MLW training in Africa, a topic that has received insufficient attention in the literature to date. However, as a cross-sectional rapid appraisal, the study also had a number of limitations. We were not able to undertake a comprehensive and detailed evaluation of MLW training and training institutions but relied on policy documents, curricula, selected key informant interviews, and surveys with district managers and a sample of MLWs. The study was restricted to four countries, capturing a range of different MLW programs and experiences, but may not reflect all countries in the region. The quantitative survey with MLWs was limited in size, particularly in Nigeria, but with good participation rates indicating that the responses should be representative. Future studies, with more resources, will address these limitations.