Table 1 Characteristics of the study sample of older adults (N = 1201)

Patient

 Age, n (%)

  65–74 years

583 (64.1)

66 (66.0)

111 (58.1)

0.252

  75 + years

327 (35.9)

34 (34.0)

80 (41.9)

 Sex, n (%)

  Male

392 (43.1)

60 (60.0)

54 (28.3)

< 0.001^*

  Female

518 (56.9)

40 (40.0)

137 (71.7)

 Marital status, n (%)

  Married/ in common law

582 (64.2)

68 (68.0)

117 (61.6)

0.551

  Single/divorced/widowed

324 (35.8)

32 (32.0)

73 (38.4)

 Education level, n (%)

  Primary

214 (23.5)

30 (30.0)

50 (26.2)

0.198

  Secondary

394 (43.3)

46 (46.0)

89 (46.6)

  Post-secondary/university

302 (33.2)

24 (24.0)

52 (27.2)

 Country of origin, n (%)

  Canada

880 (96.8)

95 (95.0)

176 (92.1)

0.011^*

  Other (immigrant)

29 (3.2)

5 (5.0)

15 (7.9)

 Annual household income, n (%)

  < $25,000

282 (31.0)

28 (28.0)

71 (37.2)

0.175

  ≥ $25,000

628 (69.0)

72 (72.0)

120 (62.8)

 Social support index, score 0–3, mean (SD)

2.78 (SD: 0.63)

2.76 (SD: 0.67)

2.73 (SD: 0.72)

0.705

 Number of daily hassles, score 0–22, mean (SD)

4.61 (SD: 3.88)

3.88 (SD: 3.66)

5.24 (SD: 3.62)

0.013*

 K10 Psychological distress, score 10–50, mean (SD)

17.98 (SD: 7.01)

17.07 (SD: 6.47)

20.87 (SD: 7.83)

< 0.001^*

 Presence of traumatic events, n (%)

  Childhood

115 (12.6)

10 (10.2)

29 (15.8)

0.387

  Sexual abuse, assault, violence, stalked, kidnapping, war/combat

239 (26.8)

24 (24.5)

61 (33.2)

0.165

  Other (accident, natural disaster, life-threatening disease)

454 (50.9)

49 (50.0)

107 (58.2)

0.184

 Multimorbidity, n (%)

  0–2 chronic physical conditions + no common mental disorder

114 (13.0)

13 (13.8)

7 (3.9)

0.001^*

  0–2 chronic physical conditions +  ≥ 1 common mental disorder

35 (4.0)

2 (2.1)

5 (2.8)

  ≥ 3 chronic physical conditions + no common mental disorder

467 (53.2)

61 (64.9)

96 (53.3)

  ≥ 3 chronic physical conditions +  ≥ 1 common mental disorder

262 (29.8)

18 (19.1)

72 (40.0)

 Health service use, mean (SD)

  Outpatient visits in 3 months before opioid use or PIOU

1.72 (SD: 1.71)

1.51 (SD: 1.19)

3.78 (SD: 5.72)

< 0.001^*

  Hospitalizations in 3 years before opioid use or PIOU

1.22 (SD: 2.00)

1.18 (SD: 2.31)

2.55 (SD: 3.04)

< 0.001^*

  Emergency department visits in 3 years before opioid use or PIOU

0.91 (SD: 1.63)

0.77 (SD: 1.44)

2.20 (SD: 2.49)

< 0.001^*

Pain

 Pain severity, n (%)

< 0.001^*

  No/low pain

508 (56.8)

57 (57.6)

84 (45.4)

  Moderate pain

360 (40.3)

38 (38.4)

79 (42.7)

  Extreme pain

26 (2.9)

4 (4.0)

22 (11.9)

 Pain type, n (%)

  Inflammatory

224 (24.6)

19 (19.0)

80 (41.9)

< 0.001^*

  Nociceptive

93 (10.2)

4 (4.0)

51 (26.7)

< 0.001^*

  Neuropathic

69 (7.6)

13 (13.0)

28 (14.7)

0.003^*

  Nociplastic

50 (5.5)

1 (1.0)

12 (6.3)

0.125

  Other

45 (4.9)

3 (3.0)

16 (8.4)

0.088^†

Substance use

 Substance or alcohol use disorder

  Absence

837 (92.0)

98 (98.0)

168 (88.0)

0.012^*

  Presence

73 (8.0)

2 (2.0)

23 (12.0)

 Alcohol use

0.907

  Non-drinkers

225 (25.3)

25 (25.3)

46 (24.9)

  Light to moderate drinkers

622 (69.9)

68 (68.7)

127 (68.6)

  Heavy drinkers

43 (4.8)

6 (6.1)

12 (6.5)

Provider

 Number of distinct prescribers in 3 years before opioid use or PIOU, mean (SD)

3.45 (SD: 2.73)

3.90 (SD: 2.65)

5.88 (SD: 3.64)

< 0.001^*

 Continuity of care index, mean (SD)

0.24 (SD: 0.24)

0.19 (SD: 0.21)

0.21 (SD: 0.23)

0.083^†

Health care system

 Type of practice, n (%)

  FMG or CLSC

361 (40.0)

53 (54.1)

83 (43.7)

0.024^*

  Private clinic with < 3 physicians

273 (30.3)

23 (23.5)

43 (22.6)

  Private clinic with ≥ 3 physicians

268 (29.7)

22 (22.4)

64 (33.7)