Table 4 Description of interventions used in studies

Touch

It can be a skin-to-skin touch for the sole purpose of comfort to foster positive feelings in elderly patients [31]; interpersonal touches, such as hugs, handshake, pat on the back, touching cheeks, or any other physical contact intended to communicate emotions or establish and maintain social bonds [32, 33, 37]; a pat on the shoulder to show the nurse cares [35].

Smiling

Smiles as a component of the relationship between the patient and the provider [32]; smiling when addressing the patient [33]; smiling as a communicative strategy to improve patient satisfaction with the services [37].

Gaze, head nod, and eyebrow movement

Gaze, head nods, and eyebrow movements as relationship components [32] or as nonverbal means of communication to address the patient [33], often combined with touch and smiling [32, 33].

Silence and active listening

Listening to patients as a way of showing them respect (combined with touching the shoulder) [35]; active listening as a channel of effective non-verbal communication [37].

Close physical distance or leaning forward

Close physical distance by sitting on patients’ beds and sitting close to patients [37]; leaning closer to the patient to look in their face [33].

Use of visual aids

Using photos and video clips to support communicative exchange between the patient and the provider is helpful, especially when patients have limited health literacy [34].

Telephone communication

Use of regular phone calls to promote behaviour change in patients using theoretical frameworks of behaviour change [36].