Table 3 Description of the SP interventions
Author(s), year of publication, country of study | Target population | Outcome(s) (loneliness and/or social isolation) | Details of delivery | Description of the SP interventions |
|---|---|---|---|---|
(Alliance for Healthier Communities, 2020) [45], Canada Published report for 3rd sector | - Diverse mix of people with social and medical complexities, e.g., living on low income or social assistance, newcomers, individuals with chronic conditions, mental health issues, or comorbidities, people from population groups facing the highest health disparities in Ontario – Black and racialized people, Indigenous people, those from Two Spirit (2S) and LGBTQ + , and Francophones | Loneliness and social isolation | - Face-to-face delivery - Group activities - 11 Community Health Centers (CHCs) developed a SP initiative within their community - Length of intervention: 18 months | RX: Community is a social prescribing pilot research project which consists of 11 Community Health Centers (CHCs). These CHCs offer activities such as navigating housing and employment services, communal dining, exercise groups, coffee clubs, community gardens, sing-alongs, knitting classes, card game groups, pole walking, friendly visiting, arts classes, etc |
(Blickem et al., 2013) [46], UK | - People with long-term health conditions (LTCs) | Social isolation | - Face-to-face delivery - Group activities - Length of intervention: not stated | Community centers and health-related support groups (e.g., cardiac support group, diabetes support group, sugar group) offering activities such as exercise, hobbies, and interests. The provided activities or services were relevant to participants’ health and wellbeing |
(Cheetham et al., 2018) [47], UK | - People from deprived local communities - People with long-term health conditions - People with poorer healthy life expectancy | Social isolation | - Face-to-face delivery - Individual sessions (up to 12) and group activities - Length of intervention: 12 weeks | Live well Gateshead (LWG) aims to promote health and wellbeing through a combination of tailor made, lifestyle interventions for individuals, groups, families and communities. Services provided by Local Authorities and NHS staff include 1:1 session with wellness coaches, group work, smoking cessation, weight management, dietary and healthy eating advice, physical activity pathways, mental health and emotional wellbeing interventions, alcohol brief interventions, signposting and accompanied referral to specialist agencies, such as welfare rights and housing advice |
(Fortune et al., 2021) [48], Canada | - Older adults with diverse cultural background, income levels and health status | Loneliness and social isolation | - Face-to-face delivery - Group activities - Length of intervention: 4 months | Art Hives are defined as free inclusive community art spaces and designed as ‘public home places’. In these places, participants were encouraged to make art together |
(Frerichs et al., 2020) [49], UK | - People severely anxious and depressed | Loneliness | - Face-to-face delivery - Individual sessions (up to 10) and group sessions - Length of intervention: 2 years | The Community Navigatior programme includes receiving support from a ‘Community Navigator’ based in secondary mental health services who will help service users to increase social contact, participation in social activities and community engagement, with the aim of reducing feelings of loneliness. Besides, group sessions will take place where participants are encouraged to share information about local resources and social groups |
(Giebel et al., 2020) [50], UK | - People (aged 18 and above) at risk of feeling lonely and isolated, with low levels mental health needs - People from any socio-economic background | Loneliness and social isolation | - Face-to-face delivery - Individual sessions and group activities - Length of intervention: 14 weeks | The Community Connectors service is a structured support service that enables access to local support through a range of early intervention and prevention services such as luncheon clubs, debt awareness, social activities, befriending, foodbanks, as well as commissioned services |
(Greaves & Farbus, 2006) [51], UK | - People from their 50 s onwards, whose lives may have changed or are about to change in some way (perhaps through retirement, moving home, age or illness), or people with time on their hands, or who might find it difficult to keep in touch with the local community - People with no mental or physical health problems | Loneliness and social isolation | - Face-to-face delivery and telephone contact with the LWs - Individual home sessions (only for participants with severe mobility problems) and group activities - Length of intervention: 1 year | The Upstream Healthy Living Centre is a community-based intervention which provides participants with programmes of creative, exercise and/or cultural activities, with an emphasis on social interaction. Offered activities include painting, print making, creative writing, reminiscence/living history, Tai Chi, movement/gentle exercise, computing, pottery, exploring sound and music, various craft work activities, quilting, falls awareness education, singing, hand bells, Walk and Talk groups, cookery, books clubs, and hearing school children read |
(Greenfield & Mauldin, 2017) [52], USA | - Older adults | Social isolation | - Face-to-face delivery - Group activities - Length of intervention: not stated | Naturally Occurring Retirement Community Supportive Service (NORC) Programs seek to promote health and wellbeing of older adults ageing in place in their own homes and communities. They are composed of a variety of types of community activities, including socio-recreational (e.g., yoga classes, luncheons and trips), educational (e.g., discussion groups and informational sessions) and civic (e.g., advisory council meetings, meetings with local government officials and intergenerational volunteering) |
(Hemingway & Jack, 2013) [53], UK | - Older adults | Loneliness and social isolation | - Face-to-face delivery - Group activities (once a week for 2 h) - Length of intervention: 3 years | The friendship clubs promote wellbeing for older people and offer several activities such as card games, outings, information giving sessions, physical exercise, guest speakers and entertainers, as well as informal conversation over a tea and cake |
(Kellezi et al., 2019) [54], UK (Study 1 in the article) | - People with chronic illness who are experiencing loneliness | Loneliness and social isolation | - Face-to-face delivery - Individual sessions and group activities - Length of intervention: 8 weeks | The SP pathway aims to increase patients’ illness self-management, address their psychosocial and health needs, and through this to reduce primary healthcare usage. To do so, patients are offered either one-to-one support meetings, or group activities that meet their needs |
(Kharicha et al., 2017) [55], UK | - Community dwelling lonely older adults aged 65 and over (recruited from 5 NHS primary care practices) | Loneliness and social isolation | - Face-to-face delivery - Individual sessions (primary based services) and group activities - Length of intervention: not stated | The SP intervention consists of primary and community-based services that offer both one-to-one and group-based support such as lunch clubs, coffee mornings, exercise groups, hobby-based activities, etc |
(MacLeod et al., 2016) [56], Canada | - Isolated older rural adults | Social isolation | - Face-to-face delivery - Individual sessions (n = 10) - Length of intervention: 10 weeks | Visible Voices: Senior Connecting with Seniors through Expressive Arts Making sought to address rural social isolation through the intervention of in-home volunteer-based expressive arts. Socially isolated older adults were matched one-to-one with older adult volunteers to conduct in-home, individual, intermodal art-making activities in their dyads. The volunteers included retired artists, teachers, and nurses, among others |
(Moffatt et al., 2017) [42], UK | - People aged 40–74 years with one or more of long-term health conditions (e.g., diabetes (types 1 and 2), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, coronary heart disease, heart failure, epilepsy, osteoporosis, with or without anxiety or depression) | Social isolation | - Face-to-face delivery - Contact with LWs can be face-to-face, via telephone, email and/or text messages - Individual sessions and group activities - Length of intervention: 4 to 14 months | Ways to Wellness provides a ‘hub’ model of social prescribing in which service users’ health and wellness goals are identified and where they are further connected to community and voluntary groups and resources such as welfare rights advice, walking groups, physical activity classes, arts groups, and continuing education. Promotion of volunteering opportunities and of improved self-care and sustained behaviour change related to healthier lifestyle choices are also encouraged |
(Nordin et al., 2020) [57], Sweden | - Community dwelling older adults aged 65 and over who receive home care to meet their social needs and/or experience loneliness (recruited from 2 municipalities) | Loneliness | - Face-to-face delivery - Group activities - Length of intervention: not stated | People with support from home care services were offered to go to community-based activity centers to receive support and increase their social participation |
(Todd, 2017) [58], UK Unpublished PhD thesis | - People aged 64–84 years self-identifying as lonely or socially isolated | Loneliness and social isolation | - Face-to-face delivery - Group sessions (n = 10) - Length of intervention: 10 weeks | Museum-on-Prescription (MoP) programme encourages participants to attend the museum once a week. MoP sessions consist of museum focused activities that may include museum object handling and discussion, guided visits to permanent displays and special exhibitions, creative writing and arts and crafts led by artists and museum staff |
(Van De Venter & Buller, 2015) [59], UK | - People with mild-to-moderate mental health problems (e.g., depression, social isolation, chronic conditions, etc.) - People experiencing commonly associated mental health challenges (e.g., social support and financial concerns) | Social isolation | - Face-to-face delivery - Group activities - Length of intervention: 20 weeks | Arts-on-Referral (AoR) schemes expose participants to a range of activities such as painting, textiles, music, photography and film. The schemes aim to improve participants’ wellbeing and social capital through collective engagement in creative arts, increased social contact and community engagement |
(Wildman et al., 2019) [43], UK | - People aged 40–74 years with one or more of long-term health conditions (e.g., diabetes (types 1 and 2), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, coronary heart disease, heart failure, epilepsy, osteoporosis, with or without anxiety or depression) | Social isolation | - Face-to-face delivery - Contact with LWs can be face-to-face, via telephone, email and/or text messages - Individual sessions and group activities - Length of intervention: minimum 2 years | Ways to Wellness provides a ‘hub’ model of social prescribing in which service users’ health and wellness goals are identified and where they are further connected to community and voluntary groups and resources such as welfare rights advice, walking groups, physical activity classes, arts groups, and continuing education. Promotion of volunteering opportunities and of improved self-care and sustained behaviour change related to healthier lifestyle choices are also encouraged |
(Wood et al., 2021) [60], UK | - People aged 18 and over with multiple health conditions including co-existing physical and mental health concerns (e.g., depression, anxiety, social isolation - People with social needs associated with housing, benefits, and lack of support networks - People from an inner-city area of high socioeconomic deprivation | Social isolation | - Face-to-face delivery - Individual sessions and group activities - Length of intervention: not stated | Advice and services around health, employment and training were provided to participants. That includes health training (e.g., weight loss or health eating advice, alcohol or cigarette reduction and exercise advice), social cafés, benefits and housing advice, and volunteer work. There is no set pathway through the service and clients can access different services at different times in whatever order meets their needs |
(Woodall et al., 2018) [61], UK | - People aged 14 and over with physical and mental health difficulties (e.g., anxiety, social isolation, loneliness, etc.) | Loneliness and social isolation | - Face-to-face delivery - Group activities (up to 6) - Length of intervention: 16 weeks | Wellbeing Coordinators offer support to individuals and provide advice on local groups and services in their local community. The activities range from mental health and counselling advice, physical fitness classes, support for physical or emotional difficulties, finance and debt advice, and creative groups |