Provider implicit and explicit bias in person-centered maternity care: a cross-sectional study with maternity providers in Northern Ghana

Table 5 Multivariate analysis of factors associated with provider explicit and implicit bias

Characteristic	Category	Score on low SES woman vignette, (N = 148)		Score on high SES woman vignette, (N = 148)		IAT score, (N = 150)
Characteristic	Category	Coeff (95% CI)	p-value	Coeff (95% CI)	p-value	Coeff (95% CI)	p-value
Facility type	Govt hospital			Reference	-	Reference	-
	Govt health center/Dispensary			0.90 (-0.41,2.21)	0.180	0.18 (0.04,0.32)	0.013
	Mission/private			-0.89 (-1.64, -0.15)	0.019	0.18 (0.07,0.29)	0.002
Age	23–29 years			Reference	-
	30–39 years			0.10 (-1.40,1.59)	0.900
	40–52 years			2.53 (0.51,4.54)	0.014
Marital status	Married					Reference	-
Marital status	Single					0.15 (-0.02,0.32)	0.091
Number of children	No children			Reference	-
	1 to 2 children			0.92 (-0.49,2.32)	0.200
	3 or more children			2.40 (0.55,4.24)	0.011
Educational level	Training college and below	Reference	-
Educational level	University and above	-2.17 (-3.74, -0.60)	0.007
Monthly salary	Less than 2000 GHS					Reference	-
Monthly salary	2000–3000 GHS					0.12 (0.01,0.23)	0.041
Years as provider	0–5 years			Reference	-
	6–10 years			-0.35 (-2.07,1.38)	0.694
	More than 10 years			-2.87 (-4.87, -0.88)	0.005
Social mobility	Upward mobility	Reference	-			Reference	-
	No change	1.11 (0.04,2.19)	0.043			-0.04 (-0.17, 0.08)	0.493
	Downward mobility	-0.51 (-1.99,0.97)	0.500			-0.24 (-0.43, -0.05)	0.013
Training on interpersonal interactions	No	Reference	-
Training on interpersonal interactions	Yes	-0.57 (-1.41,0.28)	0.189

Higher mean scores on the low SES vignette indicate stronger negative explicit bias towards the low SES woman, while higher mean scores on the high SES vignette indicate stronger negative explicit bias towards the high SES woman. Higher IAT scores indicate stronger implicit bias in favor of high SES patients

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