Table 2 Study characteristics

(Alliance for Healthier Communities, 2020) [45], Canada

Unpublished literature

1101 (63.9% female; 32.7% male; 3.4% other)

Aged 18–81 + . People coming from 11 Clinical Commissioning Groups representing a diverse mix of urban, rural, Northern, and Francophone communities

Understanding the contextual factors, facilitators, challenges, and impact of social prescribing

Focus groups using a semi-structured interview format (face-to-face) (number of focus groups not stated)

Electronic medical records (EMR) data extraction

Thematic analysis

1)Improved mental wellbeing

2)Greater capacity to self-manage health

3)Decreased loneliness, increased sense of connectedness and belonging

5/6

Y^a – Authority

Y – Accuracy

N^b – Coverage

Y – Objectivity

Y – Date

Y – Significance

(Blickem et al., 2013) [46], UK

34 males and females (% not stated)

People living with long-term health conditions (e.g., cardiac issues, diabetes, etc.) and who are often isolated, recruited from health-related support groups and community centres offering a variety of activities (e.g., exercise, hobbies, interests) relevant to health or wellbeing

Exploring the meaning and role of the community and voluntary sector for people with physical and mental long-term health conditions

Focus groups (n = 5) (face-to-face)

Thematic analysis

1)Isolation, safety and linking to support

2)The group’s power to normalize the problems of chronic illness

3)Reciprocal communities

9/10

Y—Clear aims

Y—Appropriate qualitative methodology

Y—Appropriate research design

Y—Appropriate data collection

Y—Appropriate recruitment strategy

N—Considered reflexivity appropriately

Y—Ethical considerations addressed

Y—Rigorous data analysis

Y—Clear statement of findings

Y—Value of research

(Cheetham et al., 2018) [47], UK

25 (15 female & 10 male)

Aged 34–71. People experiencing a variety of psychosocial and economic issues (e.g., loneliness, social isolation, significant mental health concerns, anxiety and depression, stress, caring responsibilities, family worries, grief, loss, and bereavement)

Exploring service users’ experiences and understanding the factors influencing service user engagement and the ‘active ingredients’ that prompt change

In-depth semi-structured interviews (face-to-face)

Short Warwick Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale (SWEMWBS)

Thematic analysis

1)What helped individuals’ progress towards meeting self-identified goals?

2)What helped communities?

6/10

Y—Clear aims

Y—Appropriate qualitative methodology

Y—Appropriate research design

Y—Appropriate recruitment strategy

Y—Appropriate data collection

N—Considered reflexivity appropriately

N—Ethical considerations addressed

N—Rigorous data analysis

Y—Clear statement of findings

N—Value of research

(Fortune et al., 2021) [48], Canada

19 (16 female & 3 male)

Mostly aged 65 + . People recruited from three art hives (‘public home places’) who differ in terms of cultural background, income levels and health status

Exploring the perceptions of belonging and the ways in which the involvement in the intervention contributed to the sense of belonging

Focus groups (n = 3) and interviews (face-to-face)

Thematic analysis

1)Needing social spaces

2)Being welcomed into a non-judgemental Space

3)Coming for more than just the art

4)Creating a shared space

8/10

Y—Clear aims

Y—Appropriate qualitative methodology

Y—Appropriate research design

N—Appropriate recruitment strategy

Y—Appropriate data collection

N—Considered reflexivity appropriately

Y—Ethical considerations addressed

Y—Rigorous data analysis

Y—Clear statement of findings

Y—Value of research

(Frerichs et al., 2020) [49], UK

19 (14 female & 5 male)

Aged 18–70. People experiencing severe depression and/or anxiety, and loneliness

Exploring service users’ experiences to understand what affects people’s ability to embrace loneliness interventions

Semi-structured interviews (face-to-face, except one with telephone)

Thematic analysis and narrative analysis

1)Desire to connect with others

2)Individual’s social confidence

3)Finding something meaningful

4)Accessible resources locally

5)Relationship with community navigator

7/10

Y—Clear aims

Y—Appropriate qualitative methodology

N—Appropriate research design

Y—Appropriate recruitment strategy

Y—Appropriate data collection

N—Considered reflexivity appropriately

N—Ethical considerations addressed

Y—Rigorous data analysis

Y—Clear statement of findings

Y—Value of research

(Giebel et al., 2020) [50], UK

13 (9 female & 4 male)

Aged 44–84. Individuals at risk of feeling lonely and isolated with “low levels of mental health needs”

Evaluating services users’ experiences and impact of whether accessing Community Connectors (social support service) on loneliness

Semi-structured interviews (face-to-face)

Thematic analysis

1)Structured supportive service

2)Reconnecting with community

6/10

Y—Clear aims

Y—Appropriate qualitative methodology

N—Appropriate research design

Y—Appropriate recruitment strategy

Y—Appropriate data collection

N—Considered reflexivity appropriately

N—Ethical considerations addressed

N—Rigorous data analysis

Y—Clear statement of findings

Y—Value of research

(Greaves & Farbus, 2006) [51], UK

18 (11 female & 7 male)

Aged 50 + . People whose lives have changed or are about to change, or people with time on their hands or who find it difficult to keep in touch with the local community

Identifying the range and nature of impacts of the intervention on participants

Semi-structured interviews and focus groups (n = 1) (face-to-face)

SF12 Health Quality of Life

Thematic analysis

1)Psychological and social benefits

2)Factors mediating the impact of Upstream

8/10

Y—Clear aims

Y—Appropriate qualitative methodology

Y—Appropriate research design

Y—Appropriate recruitment strategy

Y—Appropriate data collection

N—Considered reflexivity appropriately

N—Ethical considerations addressed

Y—Rigorous data analysis

Y—Clear statement of findings

Y—Value of research

(Greenfield & Mauldin, 2017) [52], USA

41 (29 female & 12 male)

Aged 60 + . More than half the participants lived alone

Exploring the meaning of the contact with others at community activities offered by the intervention

In-depth semi-structured interviews (face-to-face)

Grounded theory

1)Personal need for additional social activity

2)Health status

3)Relationships with staff

4)Appeal of the other attendees

5)Experiencing a social environment

6)Replicating existing contacts

7)Sense of community

8)Activity-based friendships

9)Independent friendships

10)Perceptions of programme attendees

7/10

Y—Clear aims

Y—Appropriate qualitative methodology

N—Appropriate research design

Y—Appropriate recruitment strategy

Y—Appropriate data collection

N—Considered reflexivity appropriately

N—Ethical considerations addressed

Y—Rigorous data analysis

Y—Clear statement of findings

Y—Value of research

(Hemingway & Jack, 2013) [53], UK

82 (over 80% female)

Average aged 80. 80% of the participants lived alone

Exploring perceptions of the impact of attending the clubs on wellbeing/mental-physical health

Interviews and focus groups (number of focus groups not stated) (face-to-face)

Interpretative analysis, inductive content analysis and constant comparative strategy

1)Feeling isolated

2)Friendship

10/10

Y—Clear aims

Y—Appropriate qualitative methodology

Y—Appropriate research design

Y—Appropriate recruitment strategy

Y—Appropriate data collection

Y—Considered reflexivity appropriately

Y—Ethical considerations addressed

Y—Rigorous data analysis

Y—Clear statement of findings

Y—Value of research

(Kellezi et al., 2019) [54], UK

(Study 1 in the article)

19 (12 female; 1 male; 1 prefer not to say)

Aged 29–85. Individuals referred to a SP pathway for weight loss reasons and support for multiple/complex needs including loneliness

Investigating the degree to which the patients recognise experiences of social (dis) connection and appreciate the effects of these experiences, as well as SP’s potential to remedy their issues

In-depth semi-structured interviews (face-to-face)

Thematic analysis

1)Patients’ perspective: relationship with link workers/health coaches and building social connections

7/10

Y—Clear aims

Y—Appropriate qualitative methodology

N—Appropriate research design

Y—Appropriate recruitment strategy

Y—Appropriate data collection

N—Considered reflexivity appropriately

N—Ethical considerations addressed

Y—Rigorous data analysis

Y—Clear statement of findings

Y—Value of research

(Kharicha et al., 2017) [55], UK

28 (18 female & 10 male)

Aged 65 + . Participants identified as lonely (either self-identified or scored as lonely on a validated scale)

Exploring the perspectives of community dwelling lonely older people about seeking support for loneliness from primary and community-based services and the features of these services which informed their views

Interviews (face-to-face)

De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale

Thematic analysis

1)Could befriending be for me?

2)‘Social groups’ are for others

3)Having a common interest

4)Dealing with loneliness privately

8/10

Y—Clear aims

Y—Appropriate qualitative methodology

Y—Appropriate research design

Y—Appropriate recruitment strategy

Y—Appropriate data collection

N—Considered reflexivity appropriately

N—Ethical considerations addressed

Y—Rigorous data analysis

Y—Clear statement of findings

Y—Value of research

(MacLeod, Skinner, Wilkinson, & Reid, 2016) [56], Canada

8 (6 female & 2 male)

Aged 65–95. Participants were cognitively well but isolated

Exploring the experience of older adults who engage in expressive arts

Field notes, debriefing meeting minutes and audio logs

Thematic analysis and narrative analysis

1)Relationships

2)Personal development

3)Created meanings

7/10

Y—Clear aims

Y—Appropriate qualitative methodology

N—Appropriate research design

Y—Appropriate recruitment strategy

N—Appropriate data collection

N—Considered reflexivity appropriately

Y—Ethical considerations addressed

Y—Rigorous data analysis

Y—Clear statement of findings

Y—Value of research

(Moffatt et al., 2017) [42], UK

30 (14 female & 16 male)

Aged 40–74. Individuals had more than one long-term condition (e.g., diabetes, asthma, coronary heart disease, obstructive pulmonary disease, heart failure, epilepsy, osteoporosis), had physical and mental health issues, low confidence and social isolation

Capturing the experiences of patients engaged in the intervention in its first 14 months of operation and identifying the impact of the programme on health and wellbeing

Semi-structured interviews (face-to-face)

Thematic analysis

1)Positive impact of the link worker social prescribing programme (health-related behaviours; mental health; long-term condition management)

7/10

Y—Clear aims

Y—Appropriate qualitative methodology

N—Appropriate research design

Y—Appropriate recruitment strategy

Y—Appropriate data collection

N—Considered reflexivity appropriately

N—Ethical considerations addressed

Y—Rigorous data analysis

Y—Clear statement of findings

Y—Value of research

(Nordin et al., 2020) [57], Sweden

7 (5 female & 2 male)

Aged 79–94. Older adults who were receiving home care to meet social needs and/or experiencing loneliness. All were widowed and living alone

Exploring the perceptions and experiences of community-dwelling older adults with regard to aspects related to social participation in the specific context of living with support from home care services

Semi-structured interviews (face-to-face)

Content analysis

A.the ME: doing what I like:

1)Cultivating interests

2)Navigating occupations

B.the WE: seeing and being seen by my people:

1)Being in a circle of significant people

2)Having practical and social needs seen,

3)Feeling equality and mutuality

10/10

Y—Clear aims

Y—Appropriate qualitative methodology

Y—Appropriate research design

Y—Appropriate recruitment strategy

Y—Appropriate data collection

Y—Considered reflexivity appropriately

Y—Ethical considerations addressed

Y—Rigorous data analysis

Y—Clear statement of findings

Y—Value of research

(Todd, 2017) [58], UK

Unpublished literature

12 (7 female & 5 male)

Aged 64–84. Participants self-identifying as lonely or socially isolated

Exploring a large-scale social prescribing scheme’s use of museums to address the psychological wellbeing of socially isolated older people

Semi-structured interviews (face-to-face or by telephone) and diary notes

UCLA Loneliness Scale

Warwick Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale (WEMWBS)

Grounded theory

A.Interacting social context

1)Evaluating self and others

2)Getting to know people

3)Social engagement

4)Sharing experiences

B.Museum as enabler

1)container and provider

2)New experiences

3)Role of facilitator

4)Engaging with artefacts and arts

C.Individual journey

1)Emotion

D.Relational processes

1)Judging others

2)Influence of others

6/6

Y – Authority

Y – Accuracy

Y – Coverage

Y – Objectivity

Y – Date

Y – Significance

(Van De Venter & Buller, 2015) [59], UK

6 (3 female & 3 male)

Aged 25–59. People with mild-to-moderate mental health problems

Exploring participants’ process of change and experiences of the group activities

Individual interviews (face-to-face)

Warwick Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale (WEMWBS)

Thematic analysis

1)Differences by gender: normalizing emotions

2)Differences by ethnicity: the importance of breaking social isolation

6/10

Y—Clear aims

Y—Appropriate qualitative methodology

N—Appropriate research design

N—Appropriate recruitment strategy

Y—Appropriate data collection

N—Considered reflexivity appropriately

N—Ethical considerations addressed

Y—Rigorous data analysis

Y—Clear statement of findings

Y—Value of research

(Wildman et al., 2019) [43], UK

24 (11 female & 13 male)

Aged 40–74. Individuals had more than one long-term condition (e.g., diabetes, asthma, coronary heart disease, obstructive pulmonary disease, heart failure, epilepsy, osteoporosis), had physical and mental health issues, low confidence and social isolation

Exploring service-users’ experiences of social prescribing, one to two years after their initial involvement to the intervention

Semi-structured interviews (face-to-face)

Grounded theory and thematic analysis

1)The importance of the service user/link worker relationship

2)Making and maintaining progress in behaviour change and LTC self-management

8/10

Y—Clear aims

Y—Appropriate qualitative methodology

N—Appropriate research design

Y—Appropriate recruitment strategy

Y—Appropriate data collection

N—Considered reflexivity appropriately

Y—Ethical considerations addressed

Y—Rigorous data analysis

Y—Clear statement of findings

Y—Value of research

(Wood et al., 2021) [60], UK

18 (10 female; 7 male; 1 prefer not to say)

Aged 18 + . People with both physical and mental health issues

Exploring the mechanisms that facilitate engagement and positive outcomes with SP intervention among people with multiple health condition and social needs

Interviews (face-to-face) and one workshop

Realist evaluation/analysis

1)Social isolation

8/10

Y—Clear aims

Y—Appropriate qualitative methodology

Y—Appropriate research design

Y—Appropriate recruitment strategy

Y—Appropriate data collection

N—Considered reflexivity appropriately

N—Ethical considerations addressed

Y—Rigorous data analysis

Y—Clear statement of findings

Y—Value of research

(Woodall et al., 2018) [61], UK

26 (12 female & 14 male)

Aged 16–94. Many participants reported feeling socially isolated prior to engagement with the service

Exploring referral pathway, activities undertaken, perceived outcomes and benefits from the service, interaction with primary care services since enrolment and recommendations for service improvement

Semi-structured interviews (by telephone)

Warwick Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale (WEMWBS)

EQ-5D

Campaign to End Loneliness Measurement Tool

Thematic analysis

1)Wellbeing

2)Social networks

3)Use of general practitioners’ services

4)The attributes of the Wellbeing Coordinator

7/10

Y—Clear aims

Y—Appropriate qualitative methodology

Y—Appropriate research design

N—Appropriate recruitment strategy

Y—Appropriate data collection

N—Considered reflexivity appropriately

N—Ethical considerations addressed

Y—Rigorous data analysis

Y—Clear statement of findings

Y—Value of research