Table 2 Associations with COVID-19 testing and COVID-19 diagnosis

  Brazil

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

  Malaysia

0.41 (0.36, 0.46)***

0.51 (0.44, 0.59)***

0.15 (0.10, 0.24)***

0.15 (0.09, 0.24)***

0.10 (0.06, 0.15)***

0.13 (0.08, 0.20)***

  Thailand

0.11 (0.09, 13.3)***

0.14 (0.11, 0.18)***

0.11 (0.03, 0.35)***

0.14 (0.04, 0.44)***

0.02 (0.01, 0.07)***

0.04 (0.01, 0.11)***

  Bangladesh

0.75 (0.58, 0.98)*

0.62 (0.46, 0.83)**

2.36 (1.55, 3.58)***

1.98 (1.24, 3.16)**

1.68 (1.17, 2.42)**

1.41 (0.94, 2.13)

  5 African countries

0.57 (0.48, 0.68)***

0.53 (0.53, 0.88)**

0.44 (0.28, 0.68)***

0.52 (0.31, 0.86)

0.34 (0.22, 0.52)***

0.37 (0.22, 0.64)***

  18–39

1 (Reference)

–

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

  40–59

1.09 (0.93, 1.27)

0.60 (0.43, 0.83)**

0.98 (0.68, 1.40)

0.68 (0.50, 0.93)*

1.16 (0.81, 1.64)

  60 or more

1.04 (0.87, 1.23)

0.61 (0.44, 0.86)**

0.89 (0.60, 1.34)

0.67 (0.50, 0.92)*

0.85 (0.60, 1.21)

  Male

1 (Reference)

–

1 (Reference)

–

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

  Female

1.07 (0.91, 1.26)

1.43 (0.99, 2.06)

1.42 (1.00, 2.00)*

1.06 (0.73, 1.53)

  Lives alone

1 (Reference)

–

1 (Reference)

–

1 (Reference)

–

  Lives with other people

1.00 (0.82, 1.22)

1.32 (0.92, 1.90)

1.27 (0.90, 1.79)

  Primary/secondary

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

–

  Undergraduate

1.22 (0.92, 1.61)

1.17 (0.87, 1.56)

0.57 (0.31, 1.03)

0.53 (0.30, 0.94)*

0.74 (0.42, 1.31)

  Postgraduate

2.01 (1.53, 2.64)***

1.48 (1.10, 1.99)**

0.43 (0.24, 0.75)**

0.41 (0.27, 0.72)**

0.81 (0.47, 1.40)

Not adhering to 4 COVID-19 preventive measures

0.88 (0.75, 1.06)

–

1.24 (0.87, 1.76)

–

1.27 (0.90, 1.79)

–

  Rural

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

  Suburban/urban slum

2.74 (1.95, 3.84)***

1.25 (0.86, 1.84)

3.83 (1.65, 8.87)**

1.65 (0.72, 3.83)

7.50 (3.38, 16.66)***

2.28 (0.98, 5.35)

  Urban

4.66 (3.61, 6.01)***

1.89 (1.40, 2.57)***

3.85 (1.99, 7.44)***

1.60 (0.82, 3.09)

10.90 (5.84, 20.36)***

3.11 (1.57, 6.15)***

  Low/lower middle

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

  Upper middle/high

2.14 (1.82, 2.52)***

1.49 (1.24, 1.79)***

1.59 (1.14, 2.23)**

1.20 (0.85, 1.70)

2.47 (1.80, 3.41)***

1.59 (1.15, 2.19)**

 Student or worker in the healthcare sector

1.57 (1.34, 1.85)***

2.05 (1.70, 2.48)***

1.37 (0.98, 1.91)

–

1.77 (1.29, 2.42)***

1.93 (1.37, 2.72)***

  Other

1 (Reference)

–

1 (Reference)

–

1 (Reference)

–

  Health care personnel

1.07 (0.91, 1.27)

1.32 (0.91, 1.91)

1.33 (0.93, 1.89)

 COVID-19 correct knowledge

1.36 (1.15, 1.58)***

0.95 (0.78, 1.16)

0.86 (0.61, 1.20)

–

1/07 (0.78, 1.48)

–

  None

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

1 (Reference)

  Mild

1.26 (1.06, 1.50)**

1.05 (0.85, 1.29)

1.17 (0.80, 1.73)

1.11 (0.73, 1.71)

1.35 (0.93, 1.95)

1.07 (0.71, 1.59)

  Moderate

1.82 (1.37, 2.42)***

1.40 (1.03, 1.91)*

2.57 (1.51, 4.36)***

1.98 (1.16, 3.39)*

3.24 (1.97, 5.33)***

1.22 (1.32, 3.74)**

  Severe

1.63 (1.15, 2.32)**

1.40 (1.00, 1.98)*

3.21 (1.75, 5.88)***

2.33 (1.28, 4.25)**

3.58 (2.02, 6.34)***

2.58 (1.45, 4.60)***

 Worry/fear about being (re) infected with COVID-19

1.08 (1.02, 1.15)*

0.97 (0.89, 1.05)

1.03 (0.90, 1.17)

–

1.08 (0.96, 1.22)

–

 Chronic condition(s)

1.44 (1.21, 1.72)***

1.25 (1.02, 1.52)*

0.95 (0.64, 1.39)

–

1.21 (0.84, 1.75)

–