Table 1 Sample and COVID-19 testing characteristics of adults in nine low-and middle-income countries, 2020, 2021
Variable | Sample | COVID-19 testing/infection status | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
Not tested/no results | Negative | Positive | ||
N (%) | N (%) | N (%) | N (%) | |
All | 10,183 | 6078 (59.7) | 3362 (33.0) | 743 (7.3) |
Predisposing factors | ||||
Country | ||||
Brazil | 6470 (63.5) | 3283 (50.7) | 2526 (39.0) | 61 (10.2) |
Malaysia | 1738 (17.1) | 1246 (71.7) | 473 (27.2) | 19 (1.1) |
Thailand | 1124 (11.0) | 1017 (90.5) | 104 (9.3) | 3 (0.3) |
Bangladesh | 230 (2.3) | 133 (57.8) | 60 (26.1) | 37 (16.1) |
5 African countries | 621 (6.1) | 399 (64.3) | 199 (32.0) | 23 (3.7)a |
Age in years | ||||
18–39 | 4041 (39.7) | 2397 (59.3) | 1343 (33.2) | 301 (7.4) |
40–59 | 4081 (40.1) | 2367 (58.0) | 1408 (34.5) | 306 (7.5) |
60 or more | 2061 (20.2) | 1314 (63.8) | 611 (29.6) | 136 (6.6) |
Sex | ||||
Male | 3579 (35.1) | 2164 (60.5) | 1178 (32.9) | 237 (6.6) |
Female | 6604 (64.9) | 3914 (59.3) | 2184 (33.1) | 506 (7.7) |
Living status | ||||
Lives alone | 932 (9.2) | 528 (56.7) | 329 (35.3) | 75 (8.0) |
Lives with other people | 9251 (90.8) | 5550 (60.0) | 3033 (32.8) | 668 (7.2) |
Education | ||||
Primary/secondary | 1316 (13.0) | 838 (67.7) | 315 (25.4) | 85 (6.9) |
Undergraduate | 4028 (39.5) | 2612 (64.8) | 1163 (28.9) | 253 (6.3) |
Postgraduate | 4839 (47.5) | 2567 (53.0) | 1873 (38.7) | 399 (8.2) |
Preventive measures | ||||
Not social distancing | 3378 (33.2) | 1910 (56.5) | 1124 (33.3) | 344 (10.2) |
Not wearing face mask | 413 (4.1) | 231 (55.9) | 136 (32.9) | 46 (11.1) |
No hand hygiene | 1154 (11.3) | 680 (58.9) | 356 (30.8) | 118 (10.2) |
No coughing hygiene | 3372 (33.1) | 1986 (58.9) | 1112 (33.0) | 274 (8.1) |
Not all four measures | 4872 (47.8) | 2879 (47.4) | 1570 (46.7) | 423 (56.9) |
Enabling/disabling factors | ||||
Residence | ||||
Rural | 812 (8.0) | 654 (80.5) | 145 (17.9) | 13 (1.6) |
Suburban/urban slum | 1185 (11.6) | 776 (65.5) | 334 (28.2) | 75 (6.3) |
Urban | 8186 (80.4) | 4648 (56.8) | 2883 (35.2) | 655 (8.0) |
Income | ||||
Low/lower middle | 5298 (52.0) | 3522 (66.5) | 1450 (27.4) | 326 (6.2) |
Upper middle/high | 4885 (48.0) | 2556 (52.3) | 1912 (39.1) | 417 (8.5) |
Student/worker in healthcare | 3500 (34.4) | 1780 (50.9) | 1414 (40.4) | 306 (8.7) |
Most trusted source of COVID-19 information/advice | ||||
Other | 3905 (38.3) | 2444 (62.6) | 1217 (31.2) | 244 (6.2) |
Health care personnel | 6278 (61.7) | 3634 (57.9) | 2145 (34.2) | 499 (7.9) |
COVID-19 correct knowledge | 5145 (51.5) | 2885 (55.0) | 1932 (36.8) | 428 (8.2) |
Psychological distress | ||||
None | 4774 (46.9) | 3057 (64.0) | 1442 (30.2) | 275 (5.8) |
Mild | 3528 (34.6) | 2010 (57.0) | 1244 (35.3) | 274 (7.8) |
Moderate | 1152 (11.3) | 618 (53.6) | 418 (36.3) | 116 (10.1) |
Severe | 729 (7.2) | 393 (53.9) | 258 (35.4) | 78 (10.7) |
Need for care factors | ||||
Worry/fear about being (re) infected with COVID-19 (very or extremely) | 5160 (51.7) | 3074 (58.4) | 1818 (34.6) | 368 (7.0) |
Has been quarantined during COVID-19 epidemic | 3889 (38.2) | 1576 (40.4) | 1656 (42.6) | 657 (16.9) |
Chronic condition(s) total | 2974 (29.2) | 1683 (56.6) | 1072 (36.0) | 219 (7.4) |
Heart disease | 419 (4.1) | 248 (59.2) | 144 (34.4) | 27 (6.4) |
Hypertension | 1825 (17.9) | 1053 (57.7) | 648 (35.6) | 123 (6.7) |
Diabetes | 694 (6.8) | 425 (61.2) | 219 (31.6) | 50 (7.2) |
Cancer | 157 (1.5) | 80 (51.0) | 64 (40.8) | 13 (8.3) |
HIV | 56 (0.5) | 26 (46.4) | 25 (44.6) | 5 (8.9) |
Tuberculosis | 14 (0.1) | 6 (42.9) | 5 (35.7) | 3 (21.4) |
Asthma | 730 (7.2) | 375 (51.4) | 295 (40.4) | 60 (8.2) |