Table 1 Table of included studies and summary of findings

Lee et al. (2020) [22]

NHIS

Cross-sectional study

Chinese, Filipino, Asian Indian, Other Asians (Korean, Japanese, Vietnamese, and other Asian subgroups)

Acculturation

Diabetes, Cardiovascular disease (coronary heart disease, stroke)

Compared to U.S.-born white adults, the prevalence of type 2 diabetes was significantly greater among foreign-born Asians living in the U.S. for at least 15 years (OR = 1.3 [95% CI: 1.2–1.5]). Among Asians, foreign-born Asian Indians living in the U.S. for ≥15 years had highest odds of type 2 diabetes compared to U.S.-born whites followed by foreign-born Filipinos with ≥15 years of residency.

Fair

Bayog et al. (2018) [23]

CHIS from 2011 to 2012

Cross-sectional study

Filipino

Acculturation

Diabetes, hypertension

Nativity was significantly associated with hypertension and diabetes. Long-term immigrant Filipinos were 2.8 times (p < .0005) more likely to have hypertension and 4 times (p < .0005) more likely to have diabetes compared to second-generation Filipinos. Recent immigrants were less likely to have CMD compared to long-term immigrants but more likely than second-generation

Fair

Ursua et al. (2013) [24]

Baseline data from the Project AsPIRE in the NYC and NJ area

Cross-sectional study

Filipino

Acculturation

Hypertension

Longer residence in U.S. was associated with hypertension status among Filipino immigrants. No association between language spoken and hypertension.

Fair/good

Ma et al. (2017) [25]

Recruited from 8 Filipino community-based organizations in the PA and NJ region

Cross-sectional study

Filipino

Acculturation, Education

Hypertension

Filipinos who resided in the U.S. for 20–30 years were 3.73 times more likely to have hypertension than Filipinos who lived in the U.S. for less than 19 years. Filipinos with hypertension typically were more likely to have a college degree than Filipinos without hypertension.

Fair

Yi et al. (2016) [26]

NYC Community Health Survey

Cross-sectional study

Chinese, South Asian

Acculturation, SES (Income, Education)

Hypertension

No statistical significance in association between years lived in U.S. and hypertension. Chinese and South Asian immigrants with hypertension were significantly less likely to speak English at home. Compared to Whites counterparts, foreign-born Chinese adults with hypertension were of a much lower SES profile. South Asians with hypertension were more likely to have a college education than White counterparts, while Chinese with hypertension were less likely to have a college education.

Fair

Kim et al. (2000) [27]

Two types of community-based sites in MA: Korean churches and Korean grocery stores

Cross-sectional study

Korean

Acculturation, SES (Education)

Hypertension

Korean Americans with low English proficiency were more likely to be hypertensive. Those with education less than high school were more likely to have hypertensive than those with education greater than high school.

Good

Huang et al. (2015) [28]

CHIS from 2007 to 2009

Cross-sectional study

Chinese, Filipino, South Asian, Vietnamese, Korean, Japanese

Acculturation

Diabetes

The association of acculturation and diabetes varied based on ethnicity and gender. Among Filipinos, women who only spoke English at home were less likely to have diabetes, while men who only spoke English at home were more likely to have diabetes. Chinese men who spoke English at home were more likely to have diabetes.

Fair

Kandula et al. (2008) [29]

MESA recruited from Baltimore, MD; Chicago, IL; Forsyth Co, NC; Los Angeles, CA; NY, NY; St Paul, MN

Cross-sectional study

Chinese

Acculturation

Diabetes

Among Chinese participants, there was no significant association between acculturation score and diabetes prevalence.

Good

Yang et al. (2007) [30]

Mail survey in Michigan

Cross-sectional study

Korean

Acculturation

Diabetes, heart disease

No statistically significant trend in prevalence of diabetes in relation to length of residence in the U.S. for both men and women.

Fair

Boykin et al. (2011) [31]

MESA recruited from Baltimore, MD; Chicago, IL; Forsyth Co, NC; Los Angeles, CA; NY, NY; St Paul, MN

Cross-sectional study

Chinese

SES (Income, Education)

Hypertension

No statistically significant association with income level and hypertension among Chinese women. No statistically significant association with income level and diabetes among Chinese men. Higher level of education was associated with lower prevalence of diabetes & hypertension for both Chinese women and men, but these trends were not statistically significant.

Fair/good

Shah et al. (2015) [9]

MASALA- Two clinical sites: San Francisco Bay Area through UCSF and greater Chicago area through Northwestern University

Cross-sectional study

South Asian

SES (Income, Education)

Diabetes

Lower income (<$40,000 annually) and having less than a bachelor’s degree were associated with a greater prevalence of diabetes among South Asians although the tests of heterogeneity were not statistically significant (p = 0.11 and p = 0.26 respectively).

Good

Sentell et al. (2011) [32]

Hawai’i Health Survey conducted by the Hawai’i State Dept of Health, Office of Health Status Monitoring

Cross-sectional study

Filipino, Japanese, other AAPI

SES (Education), Health Literacy

Diabetes

Japanese Americans with education less than high school were less likely to have diabetes compared to those with education more than high school. Similar nonsignificant trends were observed in Filipino Americans. Low health literacy was significantly associated with diabetes for Native Hawaiians and Japanese (p < 0.05). Odds ratio of low health literacy predicting diabetes was 1.80 for Filipino and 1.78 for Japanese.

Fair

Lagisetty et al. (2016) [33]

MASALA- Two clinical sites: San Francisco Bay Area through UCSF and greater Chicago area through Northwestern University

Cross-sectional study

South Asian (India, Pakistan,

Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka)

Social context

Diabetes

In the overall sample, no association between social cohesion and prevalence of hypertension or type 2 diabetes. But in South Asian women, higher perceived neighborhood social cohesion was associated with decreased prevalence of hypertension.

Good

Lu et al. (2019) [34]

Baseline survey data from Asian American Liver Cancer Prevention Program was used for this ancillary study in Washington, DC

Cross-sectional study

Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese

Social context

Hypertension

Chinese participants with high social support were 64% less likely to have hypertension as compared to those who had low social support (OR 0.36, 95% CI 0.15, 0.87). Among Korean and Vietnamese groups, no significant difference in hypertension status was found for various psycho-logical measures.

Good