Table 2 Description of chronic disease prevention programs

 An et al., 2013

Discovery

Financial incentives-Cash-back for healthy food

The HealthyFood program offers members up to 25% cash back on healthy food purchases on an ongoing basis which has spread nationwide across South Africa with about 260,000 enrolled households and 800 supermarkets.

Primary prevention

 Patel et al., 2011

Discovery

Vitality health promotion program

From 2001 to 2003, with a $15 monthly family fee, participants are offered with a subsidised gym membership and access to other fitness centre chains, and receive points as discounts on good and services at 20 and 40%.

Primary prevention

 Patel et al., 2010

Discovery

Vitality physical activity

In 2006, the Vitality program was based on activities on fitness, screening and health assessment, education and healthy choices. Cost for a family was about $10. Participation allowed to gain points which could be used as discounts from 15 to 45% for a range of purchases and services.

Primary prevention

 Sturm et al., 2013

Discovery

Cash-back for healthy food (positive cash reimbursement)

Ongoing incentive program. Study was conducted over 31 months. Participants had an average of 10.9 months on 10% rebate and 14.3 months with the 25% rebate.

Primary prevention

 Hubbert et al., 2003

University of Alabama

at Birmingham’s (UAB)-owned HMO

Financial incentives on a weight loss program

Incentives were given for a group lifestyle based weight management program for 12 weeks. If one lost 6% or more of their initial weight and participated in more than 10 sessions, $150 was received as reimbursement at the end of the program which was a half of the program fee paid by the member. EatRight weight management program which included mean plans with controlled calorie

Primary prevention

 Schwartz et al., 2014

Discovery

Financial incentives (negative cash reimbursement)

Monthly HealthyFood cash-back bonus from Vitality program for a duration of 6 months was implemented and the incentive was $113. The cost of groceries was $56 per month per family to join the program. Participants also risk losing the previously received reimbursement. Monthly email feedback about % of healthy items bought compared to baseline

Primary prevention

 Ball et al., 2017

GMHBA

the ACHIEVE (Active Choices IncEntiVE)

Financial and non-financial incentives were given ranging from AUD$7.50 to $50 each (total value $193.50 for women and $196.50 for men); and a chance to win one of four Apple iPad Mini devices (lottery-based incentive), worth $454. The intervention rewarded positive behaviors, motivating to increase physical activity and reduce sedentary behaviour, with the ultimate aim of achieving 150 min of physical activity per week, and a reduction of

150 min per week of sedentary time.

Primary prevention

 Lambert et al., 2009

Discovery

Vitality – incentive based physical activity

Vitality program was offered to members at about $12 per family. The sample was members whose incentives had been effective for 12 months in 2006.

Primary prevention

 McGill et al., 2018

HCF and other two unknown

Australian weight loss and lifestyle modification program (Financial incentives)

The Healthy Weight for Life program delivered three six-week phases over 18 weeks for those with weight related chronic diseases. The phases included eating plans with controlled portion, recommendations for physical activities and tracking progress, motivation, support and advice through SMS, phone, mail and emails.

Tertiary prevention

 Adams et al., 2013

Kaiser Permanente

Health coaching

A health coaching program through centralised telephonic Wellness Coaching Center across Kaiser Permanente Northern California which includes 48 medical facilities since January 2010. This was basically focused around motivational interviewing, which was a patient centred counselling style. This included one initial session for 20–20 min and a 10–20 min follow-up session. Coaching provided support with five lifestyle changes: healthy eating, physical activity, weight management, tobacco use cessation, and stress. Coaches record the session in participants’ electronic medical record.

Tertiary prevention

 Koocher et al., 2001

Fallon community health care

Medical crisis counselling

Medical crisis counselling service was offered for patients diagnosed with cancer to prevent related psychological issues. Patients were offered up to 10 sessions. The program focused on supporting to cope with the disease and distress. Patients charged $2 per visit co-payment fee for each session.

Tertiary prevention

 Härter et al., 2013

KKH-Allianz

Health coaching

Health coaching was offered for members with one or several chronic diseases. The coaching included goal attainment, information in medical conditions. The program is customised based on individual member such as monitoring weight, coaching on therapy adherence, and influenza vaccination.

Tertiary prevention

 Schwartz et al., 2010a

Highmark Inc., Blue Cross Shield

Wellness program through an online disease management program

A Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Program was implemented for employees and members that included a set of online options, with health risk assessment, and online programs focused on managing healthy lifestyle, fitness, nutrition and stress, and tobacco cessation. This was part of the Blues on Call program, which is available for people with one or more chronic conditions. Telephone counselling delivered by registered nurses and dietitians was included, with interactive voice response telephonic outreach to members, letter and phone call reminders for clinical preventive exams, educational resources. Program began in September of 2004, along with an online chronic condition self-management intervention (HealthMedia® Care for Your Health) that works in conjunction with Blues on Call health coaches to help members manage chronic conditions.

Tertiary prevention

 Scuffham et al., 2019

BUPA

Coaching Health (CAPICHe) trial

Health coaching trial included programme awareness notifications, health Coaching session, and follow-up calls (from one call in the first 2 months with no maximum number of calls being set), accessing to health coaches via telephone as required and tailored outreach and educational materials.

Tertiary prevention

 Lawson et al., 2013

–

Health coaching-telephonic

Health coaching program was focused om health behaviour change, motivating and educating about self-management of the disease. The program did not focus on diagnosis, treatment or complications or symptom management, but on the physical, mental and spiritual aspects of wellbeing.

Tertiary prevention

 Schmittdiel et al., 2017

Kaiser Permanente

Health coaching

The health coaching program was for weight management, physical activities and healthy eating behaviours. The first session was for 20–30 min for speaking to coach on the telephone, deciding on a health topic to focus, assessing readiness to change, and choosing an action step to begin. Follow-up sessions are about 10–15 min based on request and should complete within a year or less.

Tertiary prevention

 Harmar et al., 2010

German private insurance company

Chronic care management

Chronic disease management program was initiated in 2008 which is patient-centred services that focused on the full scope of chronic conditions, risk factors, and behaviours to support patients to treat the condition and manage their health. The program focused on educating and empowering members such as health-related behaviours, measures on self-care, and adherence to care. This was mainly facilitated by telephonic call support by nurses)

Tertiary prevention

 Morello et al., 2016

An Australian PHI

Telephonic Complex Care Program

The program was implemented on members with more hospital admissions. Program cost were included in the insurance membership. After a health assessment of risk, members were then offered with telephone support over six months, personalised care plan and referral to community based services. After the phone calls, a letter was sent which included information discussed in the call.

Tertiary prevention

 Harris, 2011

Blue shield

Wellness program (Healthy Lifestyle Rewards program-HLR))

An online wellness program on modifiable risk factors such as physical activity, healthy food, smoking prevention and cessation, and stress. The program includes registration the HLR website, and completion of a health risk assessment (HRA) or Wellness Assessment questionnaire. Supplemental components of include logging into the HLR website at least once weekly and completing a wellness activity, and an on-site biometric screening of height, weight, among other markers. Participants can earn up to $200 per year for participating. An individual earns $50 for completion of the Wellness Assessment (step 2), and an additional $50 for every 12 weeks logging into the HLR website and completes a wellness-related activity.

Primary prevention

 King et al., 2012

–

Coverage of fitness centre membership (Fitness Sponsorship)

This systematic review was on health-plan sponsored fitness centre membership benefit (Known as the Silver Sneakers program)

Primary prevention

 Maeng et al., 2013

Geisinger Health Plan

MyHealth Rewards (health plan-driven employee health and wellness program)

Wellness program stated in July 2006. It included health risk assessment, Employees with the health plan membership were eligible for medications for hypertension, high cholesterol, and diabetes with $0 co-pay to the employee, structures disease management programs along with financial incentives to participate. Participants received $200 incentive for enrolment and addition $200 at 6 months, and another $200 after one year completion. The program was strategies for self-management, nutrition and physical activity, medication management in collaboration with the employee’s primary care providers, and acute exacerbation management.

Tertiary prevention

 Henry et al., 2016

Kaiser Permanente

Internet based health promotion

Kaiser Permanente Southern California offered members an online Personal Action Plan with a web portal to access to information about prevention, health promotion, and care gaps.

Secondary prevention

 Frost et al., 2018

Kaiser Permanente

Physical activity

Kaiser Permanente Colorado’s community health initiated increased access to healthy eating and active living in LiveWell Colorado. Under this, a playground in intermediate schools were redesigned and additional equipment were added to encourage physical activities. The study focused on monitoring students at school before redesign in 2014, at 6 months and 12 months after the redesign.

Primary prevention

 Cheadle et al., 2018

Kaiser Permanente

Healthy eating, Active living

The healthy Eating Active Living (HEAL) Zones obesity prevention initiative was delivered in 2011–2015 in 12 low-income communities in Kaiser Permanente’s Northern and Southern California regions. HEAL Zones included policies, environmental and programmatic strategies. For example, Providing a new physical education curricula in kindergarten to 12th-grade schools, installing a lighted walking trail to provide access to safe physical activity, healthy menus in restaurants, or media campaigns on health education. The main difference between these two regions is the duration where Northern area had two large scale interventions with longer duration (one from 20,006 to 2010 and the other is from 2011 to 2014). The Southern region had the first phase of the program from 2012 to 2016. Second phase started in 2016.

Primary prevention

 McGill et al., 2020

Not specified (In PHI setting)

The Healthy Weight for Life (HWFL)

The program is an 18 week intensive weight loss and lifestyle modification program for those members who have BMI > 28 kg/m2 and those with a chronic disease. The program is offered remotely via phone, SMS, email, mail and online portal. The focus of the program is to support loss weight with controlled food portions, healthy eating for the first 12 weeks and recommendations for physical activities.

Primary and Tertiary prevention

 Coombes, 1998

Kaiser Permanente

Malnutrition screening

Oxford initiated the Nutrition screening program to identify at-risk members and managed them via both clinical and non-clinical interventions such as access to a nutrition visit from a contracted dietitian and follow-up visits.

Secondary prevention

 Schwartz et al., 2010b

An independent licensee of the Blue Cross and Blue Shield Association

wellness and disease prevention program (HealthPass)

HealthPass is a disease prevention and health promotion program implemented from 2002 to 2005 and started with a health risk assessment which assessed the member for lifestyle, habits, and health risks. Members also screened for biometric measures such as BMI, blood pressure, cholesterol, glucose. Other screenings such as pap smear were offered based on individual needs. There was a counselling session for each participant to discuss risks, wellness goals and changes in lifestyle. They were conducted individually or as groups or over the phone. Online wellness intervention program was implemented in the final 2 years of the program on managing weight, nutrition, stress and smoking cessation.

Primary and secondary prevention

 Beck et al., 1997

Kaiser Permanente

Group medical appointment

Monthly group visits for one year. The groups visit included a 15 min warm up and socialisation, 30 min health related information presentation, 15 min of reviewing individual patient’s medical records, blood pressure readings, determine any care needs by nurses and attend patients when necessary by a physician. Then, another 15 min for questions and answers session. No changes made for the usual care patients.

Tertiary prevention

 Hinchman et al., 2006

Kaiser Permanente

Childhood obesity

Operation Zero is a referral program for at risk of overweight or overweight preadolescents and adolescent patients. This involved group medical appointments with weekly one-hour appointments for two months and another four appointments at three months intervals. The program was family based and included health education, activities and healthy recipes.

Secondary prevention