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Table 1 Variables and their definitions

From: The underlying factors of excess mortality in 2020: a cross-country analysis of pre-pandemic healthcare conditions and strategies to cope with Covid-19

 

Variable name

Construction and source

Healthcare funding

HEAGDP(log)

Health expenditure as % of GDP in 2018 (sourced from World Bank)

PRIMARPC(log)

Primary healthcare expenditure per capita in current $ in 2018 (sourced from WHO)

CHAHEAPC

Per capita health expenditure % change between 2008 and 2018 is employed (sourced from World Bank)

Healthcare resources

DOC(log)

Doctors per 100 k people in 2018 (collected from World Bank)

BEDS(log)

Public and private hospital beds per 100 k people in 2018 (collected from World Bank)

NURS(log)

Nurses and midwives per 100 k people in 2018 (collected from World Bank)

Healthcare access

HEALTHINS(log)

Share of population covered by health insurance (sourced from Our-World-in-Data in [16])

PRIHEAPC(log)

Domestic private health expenditure per capita in purchasing power parity (PPP), current international $ (sourced from WHO)

PRIHEA(log)

Domestic private health expenditure as % of current health expenditure (sourced from WHO)

BEVER

Dummy variable, where 1 = Beveridge model, 0 = no Beveridge model

Covid-19 mortality

COVDEATH(log)

Covid-19 deaths per 100 k people in 2020 (collected from Our-World-in-Data)

Covid-19 testing

INDTTI(log)

Average index of TTI (INDTTI) for 2020 (ranging from 0 to 2), calculated using data from the Oxford COVID-19 Government Response Tacker (OxCGRT) [15]. OxCGRT published data for the index for each day in 2020. The average index refers to the mean for 2020. Higher values of the index correspond to strong, comprehensive, effective systems of TTI, with contact tracing for all identified cases.

COVTESTS(log)

Covid-19 tests undertaken during 2020 per 100 k people (sourced from Our-World-in-Data)

Containment and mitigation strategies

DAYSWORE (log)

Days of any measure about workplaces (recommending or requiring closing or remote working) during 2020 (sourced from OxCGRT)

DAYSLOCK (log)

Days of lockdown in 2020, with a requirement of not leaving house apart from a few exceptions (sourced from OxCGRT)

INDLOCK(log)

Average index of stay-at-home order in 2020, ranging from 0 to 3. Figures are derived from OxCGRT, which published figures for the index for each day in 2020. The average lockdown index refers to the mean for 2020. High values of the index pertain to highly stringent lockdown

CASBORCLO(log)

Covid-19 cases per 100 k people when a ban on all regions or total border closure was implemented (sourced from OxCGRT)

DAYSTEDEA

Number of days between the detection of first Covid-19 case and first death (sourced from Our-World-in-Data)

DAYDEARES

Number of days between the implementation of any policy measure and first death (sourced from Our-World-in-Data)

Control variables

AGE(log)

Median age in 2020 (figures are retrieved from the United Nations Database)

GDPPC(log)

GDP per capita, in PPP, current international $, in 2019 (retrieved from the World Bank)

POV(log)

Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines in 2019 (% of population) (World Bank data) [56]

RULELAW

Rule of law index in 2019 (World Bank data) [56]

PERFAMREL(log)

Personal and family relationships index in 2020 (sourced from Legatum Institute) [29]

SOCTRUST(log)

Trust among citizens index in 2020 (sourced from Legatum Institute) [29]

REL(log)

Level of weekly worship attendance in 2017 (derived from Pew Research Centre) [41]

INS

Dummy variable, where 1 = insular, 0 = non-insular

POPDENS(log)

Population density calculated as people per km2 in 2019 (United Nations data)

EXPPC(log)

Value of exports per capita variable in 2019 (World Bank data) [56]