Table 1 Characteristics of the included studies

Skouen 2002 [19] Norway

Outpatient spine clinic

Patient sick listed for at least 8 weeks or employees not on sick leave but sick listed for at least 2 months /year

n = 195

Light multidisciplinary programme (assessment by physiotherapist and psychologist + individual education and feedback)

Extensive multidisciplinary programme (4-week programme - 6 h session 5 days/week) consisting of CBT, education, exercises, work place intervention)

Usual care

Rivero-Arias 2005 [22] United Kingdom

Secondary care

18–55 years with CLBP > 1 year

n = 349

Intensive rehabilitation programme (education + exercise) led by a physiotherapist and clinical psychologist

Spinal stabilisation surgery

Smeets 2009 [21] Netherlands

Primary care

Age between 18 and 65 years with CLBP> 3 months with RMD score > 3

n = 172

Active physical treatment + graded activity + problem training

2 comparators: active physical treatment and graded activity plus problem training

Lambeek 2010 [20] Netherlands

Primary and secondary care

Adults (18–65) with CLBP in paid work for at least 8 h/week on partial sick leave

n = 134

Integrated care programme (workplace intervention + graded activity)

Usual care

Johnsen 2014 [18] Norway

Hospital

Adults with CLBP > 1 year with degenerative change in lumbosacral intervertebral disc n = 173

Multidisciplinary rehabilitation (outpatient programme focussed on exercise and CBT delivered by a physiotherapist and physical medicine specialist)

Total disc replacement surgery