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Table 8 Maternal and household characteristics associated with ANC attendance score based the 2002 and 2016 WHO recommendations to attend at least four or eight ANC visits per pregnancy (n = 1736)a, b

From: Out-of-pocket costs and time spent attending antenatal care services: a case study of pregnant women in selected rural communities in Zinder, Niger

 

ANC attendance score based on four ANC visitsc

ANC attendance score based on eight ANC contactsd

Spearman correlation or mean difference (95% CI)

P-valuee

Spearman correlation or mean difference (95% CI)

P-valuee

Age, years

0.04

0.12

0.003

0.90

Adolescent

 Yes

−0.09 (− 0.21, 0.04)

0.17

− 0.08 (− 0.28, 0.11)

0.40

 No

Ref

 

Ref

 

Education level

 Any formal education

0.002 (−0.11, 0.12)

0.97

0.01 (−0.17, 0.19)

0.88

 No education

Ref

 

Ref

 

Rank of woman in polygamous marriage

0.03

0.47

0.03

0.47

Principal occupation

 Housewife

0.005 (−0.12, 0.13)

0.94

−0.16 (0.36, 0.03)

0.10

 Non-housewife

Ref

 

Ref

 

Age at first pregnancy

0.009

0.72

0.009

0.70

Number of pregnancies

0.02

0.40

−0.008

0.76

Number of living children

0.04

0.17

0.008

0.75

Outcome of previous pregnancy

 Child born alive, still living

−0.04 (− 0.20, 0.11)

0.61

− 0.13 (− 0.37, 0.10)

0.26

 Child not born alive or born alive and has since died

Ref

 

Ref

 

Health facility delivery in previous pregnancy

0.15 (0.04, 0.25)

0.006

0.28 (0.11, 0.44)

0.0008

Gestational age (weeks)

0.32

<.0001

0.03

0.24

Reported experiencing any danger signs in current pregnancy

0.02 (−0.18, 0.22)

0.83

0.006 (− 0.30, 0.32)

0.97

Referred to health center because of undernutrition at visit 1f

−0.03 (− 0.14, 0.08)

0.56

0.05 (− 0.12, 0.22)

0.58

Reported receiving food assistance the month before the interview

0.33 (0.18, 0.48)

<.0001

0.46 (0.23, 0.70)

0.0001

Received mosquito net

0.18 (0.06, 0.31)

0.005

−0.009 (− 0.21, 0.19)

0.92

Has received iron folic acid supplements

0.72 (0.62, 0.82)

<.0001

0.84 (0.69, 1.0003)

<.0001

Household asset index

 Above median

0.19 (0.10, 0.29)

<.0001

0.22 (0.07, 0.37)

0.005

 At or below the median

Ref

 

Ref

 

Household livestock index

 Above median

−0.002 (−0.10, 0.09)

0.97

0.03 (−0.12, 0.18)

0.68

 At or below the median

Ref

 

Ref

 

Housing quality

 Above median

0.10 (0.01, 0.20)

0.03

0.02 (−0.13, 0.17)

0.77

 At or below the median

Ref

 

Ref

 

Household head’s education level

 Any formal education

0.15 (0.02, 0.27)

0.02

0.23 (0.003, 0.42)

0.02

 No education

Ref

 

Ref

 

Principal occupation of the household head

 Farming related occupation

−0.13 (−0.23, −0.02)

0.01

−0.21 (− 0.38, − 0.05)

0.01

 Non-farming related occupation

Ref

 

Ref

 

Levels of household food insecurity

 Food secure

0.11 (−0.01, 0.23)

0.20

0.12 (−0.06, 0.31)

0.48

 Mildly food insecure

0.17 (−0.02, 0.35)

 

0.10 (−0.20, 0.39)

 

 Moderately food insecure

0.10 (−0.04, 0.24)

 

0.16 (−0.06, 0.38)

 

 Severely food insecure

Ref

 

Ref

 

Season of enrollment

 Lean, rain (June–September)

−0.14 (−0.26, − 0.02)

0.06

−.28 (− 0.47, − 0.10)

0.01

 Dry, post-harvest (October–February)

−0.08 (− 0.20, 0.03)

 

−0.16 (− 0.35, 0.02)

 

 Hot (March–May)

Ref

 

Ref

 
  1. aANC Antenatal care
  2. bOnly women who attended ANC visits
  3. cUntil 2016, WHO recommended at least four ANC visits for uncomplicated pregnancies with the first ANC visit occurring before the12th week of gestation, the second around 26 weeks, the third around 32 weeks and the fourth visit between 36 and 38 of gestation;
  4. dIn 2016, WHO recommended at least eight ANC contacts with the first ANC contact occurring before the12th week of gestation, the second around 20 weeks, the third around 26 weeks, the fourth around 30 weeks, the fifth around 34 weeks, the sixth around 36, the seventh around 38 weeks, and the eighth around 40 weeks of gestation;
  5. eP-values are from Spearman correlation (for continuous variable) and t-test/omnibus ANOVA F-test (for categorical variables)
  6. fUndernutrition defined as mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) < 23 cm
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