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Table 5 Determinants for cost of seeking care, in USD

From: Cost of seeking care for tuberculosis since the implementation of universal health coverage in Indonesia

Variables

Total costs

Direct costs

Indirect costs

Mean

(95% CI)

β (95% CI)

P

Mean

(95% CI)

β (95% CI)

P

Mean

(95% CI)

β (95% CI)

P

Costs

22 (18–26)

  

16 (13–19)

  

6 (4–7)

  

First contact facility

 Primary Health Centre

14 (10–17)

Ref

 

8 (6–10)

Ref

 

6 (4–8)

Ref

 

 Private clinic

32 (23–41)

18.41 (10.35–26.47)

< 0.001

25 (18–32)

16.87 (10.54–23.20)

< 0.001

7 (4–10)

1.75 (−1.44–4.95)

0.280

 Public hospital

18 (9–27)

5.30 (−6.46–17.06)

0.376

13 (7–18)

4.98 (−4.22–14.18)

0.288

6 (1–10)

0.19 (− 4.48–4.85)

0.937

 Private hospital

37 (22–52)

24.96 (10.64–39.28)

0.001

36 (20–51)

28.38 (17.18–39.58)

< 0.001

1 (0–3)

−3.50 (−9.19–2.18)

0.226

 Other health provider

18 (7–29)

5.38 (−14.02–24.78)

0.586

14 (5–24)

6.83 (−8.40–22.06)

0.378

4 (−1–8)

−1.32 (− 8.99–6.36)

0.736

District

 Urban

23 (14–31)

Ref

 

16 (9–22)

Ref

 

7 (4–10)

Ref

 

 Suburban

20 (15–25)

−1.18 (−12.55–10.20)

0.839

16 (11–21)

1.81 (−6.89–10.50)

0.683

3 (2–5)

−3.23 (− 7.94–1.48)

0.178

 Rural

23 (19–28)

1.80 (−9.79–13.39)

0.760

17 (13–20)

1.57 (− 7.22–10.36)

0.725

7 (5–9)

0.23 (− 4.62–5.08)

0.926

Household income level‡

 Poor

22 (17–28)

1.93 (−5.77–9.63)

0.622

17 (13–21)

1.59 (−4.57–7.74)

0.612

6 (4–7)

0.16 (−2.80–3.11)

0.918

 Non-poor

21 (16–26)

Ref

 

15 (11–19)

Ref

 

6 (3–8)

Ref

 

Education level±

 Low

22 (18–27)

0.42 (−7.40–8.24)

0.916

17 (13–20)

0.61 (−5.638–6.86)

0.848

6 (4–8)

−0.22 (−3.25–2.75)

0.869

 Middle-high

22 (16–27)

Ref

 

16 (12–20)

Ref

 

6 (4–8)

Ref

 

National health insurance

 Covered

20 (16–23)

−5.50 (−13.17–2.17)

0.159

14 (12–17)

−4.785 (− 10.89–1.32)

0.124

5 (4–7)

−0.64 (−3.59–2.32)

0.672

 Not covered

26 (18–34)

Ref

 

19 (13–26)

Ref

 

7 (4–9)

Ref

 

Workers in informal sectors

 Yes

23 (18–28)

3.26 (−4.82–11.34)

0.428

16 (12–20)

−0.52 (−7.04–6.00)

0.876

7 (5–9)

3.92 (0.88–6.96)

0.012

 No

19 (15–24)

Ref

 

16 (12–20)

Ref

 

3 (2–4)

Ref

 
  1. Direct costs include those incurred by patients and/or their guardians during the pre-diagnostic phase for consultation, administrative fees, diagnostic tests (sputum and/or X-ray examination), food, and travel. Indirect costs include their income losses due to visits to healthcare facilities during the pre-diagnostic phase. Total costs are the sum of direct and indirect costs. β is the GLMM coefficient of the expected change in the number of visits compared to the reference category; CI confidence interval; Ref reference; P value of significance; ‡ Household earning below 1.9 USD per capita per day was classified as a poor household. ± A patient who did not graduate from elementary school was classified as having low education level