From: Women’s autonomy and maternal healthcare service utilization in Ethiopia
2005 | 2011 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Antenatal care | Place of delivery | Postnatal care | Antenatal care | Place of delivery | Postnatal care | |
AOR(95% CI) | AOR(95% CI) | AOR(95% CI) | AOR(95% CI) | AOR(95% CI) | AOR(95% CI) | |
Individual-level characteristics | ||||||
Attitudes toward wife beating | ||||||
Favorable | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Opposing | 1.47(1.19–1.81)* | 1.27(0.99–1.63) | 1.23 (0.95–1.58) | 1.20(1.01–1.43)* | 1.07(0.86–1.35) | 1.02(0.81–1.30) |
Women’s decision-making power | ||||||
Low | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
High | 1.02(0.82–1.26) | 1.06(0.83–1.36) | 1.04(0.73–1.27) | 1.10(0.91–1.32) | 1.09(0.88–1.35) | 1.04(0.76–1.22) |
Age (years) | ||||||
15–24 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
25–34 | 1.14(0.88–1.48) | 1.24(0.89–1.74) | 1.27(0.92–1.76) | 1.61(1.29–2.03)* | 1.36(1.05–1.77)* | 1.20(0.92–1.55) |
35–49 | 1.11(0.76–1.62) | 1.36(0.86–2.14) | 1.43(0.90–2.26) | 2.29(1.70–3.06)* | 1.57(1.06–2.33)* | 1.46(1.04–2.05)* |
Age at the first marriage (years) | ||||||
<16 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
16–19 | 1.02(0.81–1.28) | 1.17(0.75–1.82) | 1.22(0.95–1.58) | 1.16(0.98–1.37) | 0.93(0.75–1.17) | 0.89(0.74–1.08) |
≥20 | 1.05(0.78–1.41) | 0.82(0.59–1.14) | 1.02(0.75–1.39) | 0.96(0.76–1.21) | 1.15(0.86–1.53) | 0.75(0.59–1.01) |
Religion | ||||||
Orthodox Christianity | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Protestant Christianity | 0.96(0.67–1.36) | 1.21(0.79–1.86) | 1.08(0.74–1.58) | 0.75(0.56–1.01) | 0.90(0.59–1.36) | 0.99(0.72–1.40 |
Islam | 1.06(0.78–1.42) | 1.38(0.93–2.05) | 1.06(0.80–1.40) | 1.02(0.82–1.26) | 1.28(0.94–1.75) | 1.00(0.79–1.30) |
Others | 0.64(0.34–1.23) | 4.48(0.97–6.67) | 0.80(0.36–1.81) | 0.70(0.41–1.18) | 1.45(0.63–3.34) | 0.31(0.10–1.80) |
Educational level | ||||||
None | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Primary | 1.10(0.87–1.37) | 1.03(0.78–1.36) | 1.03(0.78–1.37) | 1.23(1.03–1.47)* | 1.11(0.87–1.41) | 1.19(0.96–1.50) |
Secondary and higher | 1.91(1.35–2.79)* | 1.49(1.05–2.10)* | 1.88(1.33–2.65)* | 2.03(1.44–2.88)* | 2.45(1.65–3.64)* | 2.64(1.91–3.65)* |
Employment status | ||||||
No | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Yes | 1.14(0.91–1.42) | 1.34(1.02–1.76)* | 1.20(0.93–1.54) | 1.19 (1.02–1.38)* | 1.08(0.88–1.32) | 0.91(0.75–1.10) |
Birth order | ||||||
First | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Second | 0.87(0.67–1.21) | 0.38(0.28–0.53)* | 0.73(0.51–1.03) | 0.85(0.67–1.07) | 0.51(0.38–0.66)* | 0.64(0.48–1.86) |
Third or higher | 0.82(0.52–1.30) | 0.45(0.26–0.80)* | 1.09(0.64–1.83) | 0.68(0.48–0.96)* | 0.54(0.32–0.91)* | 0.76(0.46–1.26) |
Number of children in the household | ||||||
1–2 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
3–4 | 0.69(0.45–1.07) | 0.72(0.45–1.13) | 0.49(0.31–0.78)* | 0.81(0.59–1.12) | 0.55(0.34–0.88)* | 0.77(0.48–1.22) |
≥5 | 0.63(0.40–0.98)* | 0.46(0.28–0.74)* | 0.50(0.32–0.80)* | 0.72(0.52–1.01) | 0.58(0.36–0.94)* | 0.72(0.44–1.17) |
Spouse’s educational level | ||||||
None | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Primary | 1.10(0.89–1.38) | 1.13(0.83–1.53) | 1.40(1.02–1.91)* | 1.36(1.13–1.62)* | 1.39(1.06–1.82)* | 1.06(0.85–1.33) |
Secondary and higher | 1.67 (1.23–2.25)* | 2.03(1.44–2.86)* | 1.86 (1.29–2.68)* | 1.66 (1.29–2.16)* | 2.24 (1.65–3.05)* | 1.88 (1.42–2.50)* |
Media exposure | ||||||
No | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Yes | 1.36(1.01–1.83)* | 1.46(1.07–2.00)* | 1.15(0.85–1.56) | 1.65(1.39–1.96)* | 1.44(1.13–1.84)* | 1.48(1.20–1.82) |
Wealth index | ||||||
Poorest | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Poor | 1.03(0.70–1.53) | 0.86(0.48–1.57) | 0.84(0.48–1.46) | 1.15(0.90–1.48) | 0.67(0.47–1.00) | 1.12(0.80–1.58) |
Middle | 1.63(1.10–2.42)* | 0.68(0.38–1.19) | 1.05(0.64–1.84) | 1.45(1.13–1.86)* | 0.67(0.45–1.01) | 1.05(0.72–1.52) |
Rich | 1.96 (1.31–2.93)* | 1.14(0.65–1.99) | 1.20(0.69–2.08) | 1.59(1.20–2.10)* | 0.80(0.51–1.25) | 1.66(1.20–2.30)* |
Richest | 3.58(1.25–4.75)* | 2.52(1.34–3.72)* | 2.21(1.23–3.97)* | 2.24(1.56–3.22)* | 1.75 (1.10–2.78)* | 2.22(1.46–3.37)* |
Place of residence | ||||||
Urban | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Rural | 1.10(0.67–1.79) | 0.42(0.23–0.77)* | 0.40 (0.23–0.70)* | 1.42(0.95–2.12) | 0.39(0.25–0.59)* | 0.41(0.28–0.59)* |
Community-level characteristics | ||||||
Attitudes toward wife beatinga | 1.16(1.08–1.90)* | 1.17(1.13–1.89)* | 1.00(0.99–1.01) | 1.21(1.01–1.62)* | 1.23(1.14–1.96)* | 1.18(1.01–1.23)* |
Decision-making powerb | 1.64(0.99–1.86) | 1.02(0.98–1.07) | 1.03(0.99–0.08) | 1.14(1.03–1.98)* | 1.00(0.98–1.00) | 1.01(0.99–1.01) |
Educational levelc | 1.38(1.10–1.97)* | 1.31(1.05–1.79)* | 1.18 (1.12–1.27)* | 1.15(1.34–1.89)* | 1.01(1.00–1.02)* | 1.13(1.05–1.96)* |
Employmentd | 1.03(0.97–1.05) | 1.07(0.99–1.02) | 1.03(0.99–1.08) | 1.03(0.99–1.10) | 1.16(1.04–1.57)* | 1.09(0.99–1.01) |
Contraception usee | 1.01(0.98–1.02) | 1.01(0.96–1.06) | 0.99(0.98–1.01) | 1.06(0.99–1.01) | 1.04(0.99–1.02) | 1.01(0.99–1.08) |
Null model | ||||||
ICC | 0.42* | 0.53* | 0.49* | 0.56* | 0.77* | 0.54* |
Log likelihood | −2941.91 | −1973.31 | −2169.41 | −4607.16 | −2644.95 | −3437.95 |
AIC | 4207.89 | 3158.65 | 3205.10 | 6051.5 | 4089.28 | 4631.05 |
Final model | ||||||
ICC | 0.29* | 0.40* | 0.13* | 0.21* | 0.33* | 0.15* |
Log likelihood | −2851.82 | −1830.34 | −2257.77 | −4487.48 | −2528.63 | −3484.26 |
AIC | 3490.96 | 2414.95 | 2537.03 | 5215.25 | 3178.29 | 3954.64 |