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Table 4 Effects of Individual-Level and Community-Level Characteristics on Maternal Healthcare Service Utilization

From: Women’s autonomy and maternal healthcare service utilization in Ethiopia

 

2005

2011

 

Antenatal care

Place of delivery

Postnatal care

Antenatal care

Place of delivery

Postnatal care

 

AOR(95% CI)

AOR(95% CI)

AOR(95% CI)

AOR(95% CI)

AOR(95% CI)

AOR(95% CI)

Individual-level characteristics

Attitudes toward wife beating

 Favorable

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

 Opposing

1.47(1.19–1.81)*

1.27(0.99–1.63)

1.23 (0.95–1.58)

1.20(1.01–1.43)*

1.07(0.86–1.35)

1.02(0.81–1.30)

Women’s decision-making power

 Low

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

 High

1.02(0.82–1.26)

1.06(0.83–1.36)

1.04(0.73–1.27)

1.10(0.91–1.32)

1.09(0.88–1.35)

1.04(0.76–1.22)

Age (years)

 15–24

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

 25–34

1.14(0.88–1.48)

1.24(0.89–1.74)

1.27(0.92–1.76)

1.61(1.29–2.03)*

1.36(1.05–1.77)*

1.20(0.92–1.55)

 35–49

1.11(0.76–1.62)

1.36(0.86–2.14)

1.43(0.90–2.26)

2.29(1.70–3.06)*

1.57(1.06–2.33)*

1.46(1.04–2.05)*

Age at the first marriage (years)

 <16

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

 16–19

1.02(0.81–1.28)

1.17(0.75–1.82)

1.22(0.95–1.58)

1.16(0.98–1.37)

0.93(0.75–1.17)

0.89(0.74–1.08)

 ≥20

1.05(0.78–1.41)

0.82(0.59–1.14)

1.02(0.75–1.39)

0.96(0.76–1.21)

1.15(0.86–1.53)

0.75(0.59–1.01)

Religion

 Orthodox Christianity

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

 Protestant Christianity

0.96(0.67–1.36)

1.21(0.79–1.86)

1.08(0.74–1.58)

0.75(0.56–1.01)

0.90(0.59–1.36)

0.99(0.72–1.40

 Islam

1.06(0.78–1.42)

1.38(0.93–2.05)

1.06(0.80–1.40)

1.02(0.82–1.26)

1.28(0.94–1.75)

1.00(0.79–1.30)

 Others

0.64(0.34–1.23)

4.48(0.97–6.67)

0.80(0.36–1.81)

0.70(0.41–1.18)

1.45(0.63–3.34)

0.31(0.10–1.80)

Educational level

 None

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

 Primary

1.10(0.87–1.37)

1.03(0.78–1.36)

1.03(0.78–1.37)

1.23(1.03–1.47)*

1.11(0.87–1.41)

1.19(0.96–1.50)

 Secondary and higher

1.91(1.35–2.79)*

1.49(1.05–2.10)*

1.88(1.33–2.65)*

2.03(1.44–2.88)*

2.45(1.65–3.64)*

2.64(1.91–3.65)*

Employment status

 No

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

 Yes

1.14(0.91–1.42)

1.34(1.02–1.76)*

1.20(0.93–1.54)

1.19 (1.02–1.38)*

1.08(0.88–1.32)

0.91(0.75–1.10)

Birth order

 First

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

 Second

0.87(0.67–1.21)

0.38(0.28–0.53)*

0.73(0.51–1.03)

0.85(0.67–1.07)

0.51(0.38–0.66)*

0.64(0.48–1.86)

 Third or higher

0.82(0.52–1.30)

0.45(0.26–0.80)*

1.09(0.64–1.83)

0.68(0.48–0.96)*

0.54(0.32–0.91)*

0.76(0.46–1.26)

Number of children in the household

 1–2

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

 3–4

0.69(0.45–1.07)

0.72(0.45–1.13)

0.49(0.31–0.78)*

0.81(0.59–1.12)

0.55(0.34–0.88)*

0.77(0.48–1.22)

 ≥5

0.63(0.40–0.98)*

0.46(0.28–0.74)*

0.50(0.32–0.80)*

0.72(0.52–1.01)

0.58(0.36–0.94)*

0.72(0.44–1.17)

Spouse’s educational level

 None

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

 Primary

1.10(0.89–1.38)

1.13(0.83–1.53)

1.40(1.02–1.91)*

1.36(1.13–1.62)*

1.39(1.06–1.82)*

1.06(0.85–1.33)

 Secondary and higher

1.67 (1.23–2.25)*

2.03(1.44–2.86)*

1.86 (1.29–2.68)*

1.66 (1.29–2.16)*

2.24 (1.65–3.05)*

1.88 (1.42–2.50)*

Media exposure

 No

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

 Yes

1.36(1.01–1.83)*

1.46(1.07–2.00)*

1.15(0.85–1.56)

1.65(1.39–1.96)*

1.44(1.13–1.84)*

1.48(1.20–1.82)

Wealth index

 Poorest

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

 Poor

1.03(0.70–1.53)

0.86(0.48–1.57)

0.84(0.48–1.46)

1.15(0.90–1.48)

0.67(0.47–1.00)

1.12(0.80–1.58)

 Middle

1.63(1.10–2.42)*

0.68(0.38–1.19)

1.05(0.64–1.84)

1.45(1.13–1.86)*

0.67(0.45–1.01)

1.05(0.72–1.52)

 Rich

1.96 (1.31–2.93)*

1.14(0.65–1.99)

1.20(0.69–2.08)

1.59(1.20–2.10)*

0.80(0.51–1.25)

1.66(1.20–2.30)*

 Richest

3.58(1.25–4.75)*

2.52(1.34–3.72)*

2.21(1.23–3.97)*

2.24(1.56–3.22)*

1.75 (1.10–2.78)*

2.22(1.46–3.37)*

Place of residence

 Urban

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

 Rural

1.10(0.67–1.79)

0.42(0.23–0.77)*

0.40 (0.23–0.70)*

1.42(0.95–2.12)

0.39(0.25–0.59)*

0.41(0.28–0.59)*

Community-level characteristics

 Attitudes toward wife beatinga

1.16(1.08–1.90)*

1.17(1.13–1.89)*

1.00(0.99–1.01)

1.21(1.01–1.62)*

1.23(1.14–1.96)*

1.18(1.01–1.23)*

 Decision-making powerb

1.64(0.99–1.86)

1.02(0.98–1.07)

1.03(0.99–0.08)

1.14(1.03–1.98)*

1.00(0.98–1.00)

1.01(0.99–1.01)

 Educational levelc

1.38(1.10–1.97)*

1.31(1.05–1.79)*

1.18 (1.12–1.27)*

1.15(1.34–1.89)*

1.01(1.00–1.02)*

1.13(1.05–1.96)*

 Employmentd

1.03(0.97–1.05)

1.07(0.99–1.02)

1.03(0.99–1.08)

1.03(0.99–1.10)

1.16(1.04–1.57)*

1.09(0.99–1.01)

 Contraception usee

1.01(0.98–1.02)

1.01(0.96–1.06)

0.99(0.98–1.01)

1.06(0.99–1.01)

1.04(0.99–1.02)

1.01(0.99–1.08)

Null model

 ICC

0.42*

0.53*

0.49*

0.56*

0.77*

0.54*

 Log likelihood

−2941.91

−1973.31

−2169.41

−4607.16

−2644.95

−3437.95

 AIC

4207.89

3158.65

3205.10

6051.5

4089.28

4631.05

Final model

 ICC

0.29*

0.40*

0.13*

0.21*

0.33*

0.15*

 Log likelihood

−2851.82

−1830.34

−2257.77

−4487.48

−2528.63

−3484.26

 AIC

3490.96

2414.95

2537.03

5215.25

3178.29

3954.64

  1. italic * P-value <0.05
  2. aPercentage of women with opposing attitudes toward wife beating
  3. bPercentage of women with high decision-making power
  4. cPercentage of women with a primary or higher educational level
  5. dPercentage of women who were employed
  6. ePercentage of women who used contraception
  7. OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; ICC, intraclass correlation coefficient; AIC, Akaike information criterion